philosophy

Philosophical arguments

Xenophanes , Heraclitus and Protagoras were concerned with origins of human judgments about the world and human perception of the reality Their observations of diversity in cultures and creatures explain their philosophical theories about the notion of truth . Protagoras ' famous dictum that a human being is the measure of all things ' supports the subjectivistic interpretation of the surrounding world . Protagoras shows that each individual decides for himself what is good , beautiful or true . According to Protagoras ' dictum , human judgments are relative because each individual takes into consideration his own needs

and interests and determines the truth for him . Diversity in cultures and different tastes of individuals demonstrate that everything is relative to something else therefore , the reality is our understanding of all things that involves our interpretation of the surrounding world based on the individual set of criteria

The philosophical theory developed by Protagoras is very close to the ideas produced by Xenophanes . Similarly to Protagoras , Xenophanes is concerned with the limits of human knowledge showing that people have tendency to transmit their own imagination and experience upon things which individuals are trying to understand . In to prove his point of view , Xenophanes criticizes the traditional belief about divinity The philosopher indicates that various races assign those physical characteristics that are typical for their race to different gods Correspondingly to Protagoras , Xenophanes believes that we do not have the true access to the understanding of the real nature of things because of the subjectivity of our observations . Xenophanes points out that the only way to investigate the surrounding world is to collect data with our senses . However , even human perceptions do not accurately display the reality because our perceptions are based upon our previous experience . Thus , a human interpretation of things depends on comparison and contrast of things that individuals have already experienced Therefore , both Xenophanes and Protagoras believe that everything is relative because human investigation and knowledge of things are based on conceptual frameworks which are shaped by previous experience and individual set of standards

Heraclitus was less skeptical about human capacity for knowledge than Protagoras and Xenophanes . According to Heraclitus , every individual is guided by a logos (single divine law or reason ) that gives possibility to approach true knowledge . Unlike Protagoras , Heraclitus claims that there is an independently existing truth (the logos ) that is accessible for everyone however , not every individual is able to understand that truth . Similarly to Protagoras , Heraclitus indicates that people who make judgments about the surrounding world accordingly to their perceptions and experience gain access to subjective information Therefore , in to obtain real knowledge individuals should investigate how their experience and observations relate to the logos

The issues which are presented in Crito and Apology illustrate the impact of the legal system upon the individual and the state and encourage the reader to think about the concept of law and the meaning of justice . In Apology Socrates demonstrates his respect to the city of Athens where he was born and spent his life and to the Laws of Athens Even though he could escape his death penalty by recommending exile , he decided not to betray his principles and moral values . One of the explanations to his behavior is that by his obedience to the laws of the city he tried to deliver the message to the citizens that goodness law-keeping and justice are the highest values . The other reason of accepting the death verdict is the willingness of Socrates to live and die in the society that is built upon the power of the Laws . If the philosopher chose the exile he would not be accepted in any city with the well-formed laws because according to the decision of the jurors he had broken the laws of the city where he spent all his life . Moreover by accepting the unjust implication of the Laws Socrates demonstrated to other citizens that it is a duty of every individual to obey all the Laws because the adherence to the Laws is the guarantee of in the society

The dialogue Crito ' describes controversy between the unjust behavior of Socrates ' accusers and the just Laws that Socrates chose to obey Socrates decided to stay in prison and obey the Laws , rather than escape and avoid death . Socrates justifies his actions by several arguments

First of all , Socrates expresses his views upon justice and unfair behavior of people . The philosopher believes that no one can ever willingly commit an injustice . Moreover , breaking an agreement is an injury or injustice . Therefore , he cannot escape from prison without convincing the state to let him leave the prison because he cannot break the agreement or the law and commit injury or injustice to the state Besides , Socrates is more interested in living honorably and justly than in finding ways to survive

Second , Socrates indicates that the Laws play the role of the social contract between the individual and the state . Any individual who reaches the age of manhood in Athens has the right to examine the Laws and decide whether the Laws suit him . Those individuals who became citizens of Athens agreed to obey the Laws . Those individuals who decided not to accept the Laws at the age of manhood had the choice to leave the city

Third , the Laws represent the and the discipline in the state Therefore , Socrates believes that if a certain individual can break the Laws the whole State can turn into chaos . Moreover , the power of the Laws should not be questioned because the relationship between the individual and the Laws is similar to the relationship between a master and his servant or the parents and their children . Thus , Socrates points out that an individual should persuade the Laws that they punish him unjustly rather than simply escape from punishment

Thus , Socrates views the Laws as the power that must be obeyed in any circumstances . The Laws are just and established for honorable purposes Therefore , the laws which support accusations of refusing to accept the gods accepted by the state and corrupting the youth are fair and Socrates decided to adhere to those laws ...