you are commissioned by a course development team to write a report on attachment which will contribute to a programme designed to support and prepare parents who will take part in an international adoption.

Running Head : REPORT ON ATTACHMENT

Attachment

[Name]

[University]

Attachment

Abstract

International adoption is a program wherein a couple will receive a child from abroad of varied ages , abilities , circumstances and cultural backgrounds . Creating a secure and lifelong attachment between the parent and the adopted child is very necessary to generate a harmonious relationship in the family . Different factors may affect attachment such as age , gender , cultural backgrounds , early childhood experiences , and other psychological issues . Understanding more about attachment can help adopting parents to build a happy-living family

p Theory of Attachment

John Bowlby , a British psychoanalyst and also known as the father of attachment theory , believed that attachment starts at infancy and persists throughout one 's existence on earth . He also stated that there are some natural behavioral control systems that are essential for survival and reproduction . The center of his attachment theory is about attachment and exploration systems . The infant 's caregiver will serve as the infant 's base of exploration establishing a strong connection with him . It is natural for an infant to be fond of exploring new things , and its primary care-giver serves as its secure protection base in times of trouble (Lee , 2003

The attachment theory was developed because of Bowlby 's attempts of understanding the extreme distress that infants undergo when they are alienated from their parents . He had observed that the infants misbehave in a way that they are extremely crying , griping , acting anxiously , etc to stop their parents from leaving or to be reunited to them . The fundamental question of the attachment system is : Is the attachment figure close , available , and attentive ? If the child perceives yes he /she feels loved , secured , and confident to explore the environment and play with others . But if the child perceives no , he or she experiences anxiety and go to extreme lengths . Prolonged separation or loss causes depression and despair to the child (Chris Fraley , 2004 Moreover , Bowlby recognized the individual discrepancies in the way children assess the accessibility of the attachment figure and how they adjust their attachment behavior in reaction to a threat . Mary Ainsworth , Bowlby 's colleague , systematically studied the infant-parent separations using the Strange Situation laboratory paradigm . Ainsworth and her students studied 12-month-old babies and their mothers and methodically , separated and reunited . When the parents leave the room the infants become upset but when the parents return , they enthusiastically seek the parent and are effortlessly comforted by them This kind of infant-child relationship is called secure . Some infants who are initially uncomfortable also showed extreme distress when they are separated from their parents , and when reunited they are not easily soothed and shows conflicting behaviors suggesting they want to be comforted but they also want to punish ' the parent for leaving These children fall under the resistant type . Lastly , the children that falls under the avoidant type ' tend to stay away from their parents or ignore them . They are not bothered by the separation and actively avoid seeking contact upon reunion . Moreover , the study showed that the children who are under the secure type have loving , and affectionate parents while those who appear insecure (resistant and avoidant type ) have insensitive , inconsistent parents (Chris Fraley 2004

Critics of Bowlby 's works

There are many critics that questioned Bowlby 's works such as overemphasis on the role of the mother , limitations on attachment figures , and inconsideration in substitute care . Bowlby only focus about the mother as the major attachment figure of babies where in fact , there are other people whom babies can form attachment figures with . He also did not put emphasis on other care that can be developed from the child 's siblings , father , and even peers but to only one attachment figure . Moreover , he did not consider the effects of good or poor quality of care in how children will undergo adjustment from separation These criticisms gave way to other research about attachment such as the works of Kagan , Seifer , and many others

Modern Theoretical Perspectives on Attachment

Despite the criticisms of early theories of attachments , Bowlby and Ainsworth 's works became the foundation of modern perspectives regarding the issue

Today , there are three categories of attachment based on the child 's behavior in times of emotional distress : secure , insecure and disorganized (DoCS , 2006

Secure attachment develops when a caregiver provides consistent responsive care which also helps the child to develop a sense of belonging and trust , enabling them to feel safe to discover and find out more about their environment . It also helps them to cultivate social skills , compassion and emotional intelligence , and learn how to relate to other people and understand what to expect from them . Secure attachment to parents or caregivers is also connected to a variety of indices of well-being , including high self-worth and low apprehension (DoCS , 2006

Insecure attachment may lead to incapability to confide to others lack of interest in learning difficulty in recognizing their own feelings a meager tolerance of other people 's behavior and a lack of empathy for others (DoCS , 2006

Disorganized attachment is commonly observed in children who experienced fright and helplessness from their own parents or caregivers (e .g . parents who are abusive , neglectful , drug addict , victims of domestic violence , etc . It causes the child to be emotionally overwhelmed and distressed for a long period of time , since they do not possess a clear strategy for dealing with distress (DoCS , 2006

Attachment experiences affect the child 's personality and later relationship . Children who have secure attachment have positive outlook in life , while those with insecure and disorganized attachments view the world and the people as dangerous and unpredictable , and themselves as bad or unworthy of love and care (DoCS , 2006

Due to experiences that they have encountered , such as maltreatments and neglects from family or orphanage , scarring their personality and emotional stability , adoptive children is said to be difficult children (van IJzendoorn Juffer , 2006 . The children 's attachment experiences and problems are very important issues to consider for people who want to take part in adoption program , especially in international programs since the child that will be given to them comes from a different culture and experienced diverse early childhood experiences and circumstances as well (DoCS , 2006

Children who had secure attachment from their biological parent may have a difficult time to adjust from the lost of their parents , however they can easily trust and form new attachment with their adopted parents since it is easy for them to trust other people . In contrast , a child with insecure or disorganized attachment may not mind the lost of their biological parents and may also find it difficult to adjust to their new environment with their new parents . They are used to rejecting parents that is why it is hard for them to trust other people

Attachment issues regarding the adoptive parent and child

Attachment doesn 't come immediately at all times , even with the biological parent and child . Building attachment is formed over time through giving consistent love and care and meeting all the child 's needs . Some adoptive parents are successful in forming a strong bond with their child , but some experiences a hard time building a happy relationship especially when the child has an attachment problem

In Thompson 's The Legacy of Early Attachments , he evaluated the impact of changing family circumstances and quality of care on changes in attachment security early in life and prediction of later behavior (Thompson , 2000 . When a child lost an attachment figure , it will cause a long and painful grief . Moreover , the child experiences attachment problems from other tragic events such as traumatic loss , severe deprivation , abuse , etc

The age of the adoptee is one of the major factors considered in adoption , wherein infants are doing best . According to a study conducted in New Zealand , newly born babies adopted had fewer externalizing conflicts than children who even grow up with at least one biological parent . Older adoptees tend to have a higher occurrence of pre-existing social instability and medical problems . However , adopted girls and adoptees of skilled foster families have better results (Nickman et al 2005

Deborah Gray , author of Attaching in Adoption , explained in her book that children under 4 years of age are expected to show considerable affection within a year . Older children are expected to form attachment within two years upon arrival . However , factors such as trauma , multiple placements , severe abuse , early neglect , cultural change can prolong this time and can be very challenging to the adoptive parents , patience is really needed (Gray , 2002

Gray also said that most children are not attaching because they are numbed or emotionally out-of-control due to trauma . She suggests an orientation therapy about attachment and trauma-coping-treatments (Gray 2002

For children who experienced those kinds of circumstances it is hard for them to cope with new environment with their new parents because they are still tied with their early attachment figure or they are still haunted by the past

In addition , there are other factors and issues that may affect attachment formation and adjustments of adopted children : emotional investment in biological parents , their own conception of family , and their rational development (Brodzinsky , 1998

Youngsters may barely understand adoption if they will be told about this family status , thus , their aptitude to realize the implications of being adopted is limited . However , as they get older , their views about adoption , their origins and themselves undergo significant adjustments They are more likely asking questions such as Who my real parents are , Why didn 't they keep me , Don 't they love me , or questions asking why their mothers didn 't chose some available options to keep them , If my parents are not financially stabled to support me why didn 't they get a job , if she 's no one with her , why didn 't she get married , or have her parents and friends so that she can keep me If she didn 't know how to take care of a baby , why didn 't someone teach her . The role of the adoptive parents of providing explanations to their child 's questions is very necessary to clear the confusions in the child 's mind to avoid further conflicts in the future (Brodzinsky 1998

As adopted children get older and have more knowledge and better understanding about the concept of family , their curiosity about their real parents also increases . They will want to know more about their origins : who are their biological parents , do they have other siblings how they were adopted , what is the connection of their adoptive parents with their birth parents , etc (Brodzinsky , 1998

Some children view their adoption in the positive way while there are some who experiences difficulties in adjusting to their status . Some are often filled with anger , confusion , pain , and uncertainty . One reason is the feeling of loss or the issue of relinquishment : they were adopted because their biological parents them over to them or they are already dead (Brodzinsky , 1998 . All through their lives , they have the feeling of they have to grieve or cope with losses particularly significant to each developmental phase

For children who were adopted when they are still infants , there are five phases of their narratives . Denying awareness : having the sense of obligation and gratitude toward the adoptive parents that he doesn 't consider himself as an adopted child . Emerging awareness : thankful for his adoptive family yet he 's curious about adoption issues . He starts asking for his origin and feeling a sense of not belonging , however , he is doubtful to explore the truth . Drowning in Awareness : he feels mad sad , angry , and bitter toward his biological and foster family , as well as the adoption system . Reemerging from awareness : he 's aware of the losses but he realized the benefits of adoption to him , he starts accepting the truth . And lastly , finding peace : he finally accepted the fact of being an adopted child and starts to move on (Penny et al 2007

To build secure attachment between a parent and adoptee , it is important that the parent know the background of the child to adjust and fully understand his /her situation . Setting up a nurturing environment (with open , honest , and non-defensive communication ) is also necessary to make him feel safe and secure . Moreover , emphasize the inevitability to help him feel positive or comfortable with their origins . Help them boost their self-esteem and social skills . It is very important to the adoptive child to feel emotionally , and proud of , their adoptive and birth family

Children who formed secure attachment with their adoptive parents have more positive view of the world and gains more confidence and certainty about themselves . On the contrary , those who failed to form such attachment will always be seeking for love , affection , and care from an attachment figure . Moreover , their whole life will always be filled with so many uncertainties and questions in their minds , with their past still haunting them

Psychological issues that may arise from having spent a period of time within in an institution

The quality of care from an institution is different from the care that can be given by a family . The physical care is less adequate since there are a large number of children that is being taken care in the institutions by a few overburdened adults . The lack of opportunity to form discriminating emotional bonds to a specific caregiver that are normally formed in the first year of life (the lack of an attachment figure in the institution setting ) creates detrimental effects . The adoptive children show voracious craving for adult attention and difficulty in developing good interaction and relations with other people (Marcovitch et al , 1997

Studies show that there are less problems reported from parents who adopted younger children , especially infants , than those who adopted older children . Complains include excessive attention-seeking restlessness , disobedience , and poor peer relations (Marcovitch et al 1997

If we will go back to the theory of attachment , these behavior problems is related to lack of having a secure attachment from a caregiver of a child . Having to spend more time in an institution wherein not all the sufficient needs of a child is being given such as maternal love physical and emotional needs , guidance , etc . in the early years of a person , he falls under the avoidant type . He got used to the situation of no one seems to really care about him . That is why being adopted would be very challenging to both the parents and the child . Insecure types have difficulties in trusting other people therefore it affects their social and communication skills that may hinder their adjustment to their new environment

International Adoption : an effective intervention for attachment diss

Children from orphanages have been negatively affected in a dose-response manner by the pre-adoption period , meaning they are at risk for attachment diss . In the journal of van IJzendoorn and Juffer , the comparisons between the children left behind in the orphanages and the adopted ones proved that international adoption is an effective social intervention in the developmental realms of substantial growth , attachment security , cognitive maturity and educational achievement , sense of worth , and behavior tribulations . Adopted children show more attachment security and lesser attachment disorganization compared with children in residential care , and their IQ scores are also higher than those of their peers left behind (van IJzendoorn and Juffer 2005

On the other hand , adopted children still lag behind their current environmental peers , and their catch-up remains incomplete in some domains (van IJzendoorn and Juffer , 2005

Late adoptions of age 12 months and up lead to more attachment insecurity because around the first year of an individual , the most essential developmental issue is basic trust in a protective adult . Late adoptees did not have the chance to experience these basic trust and secure relationship , in effect it may carry over through the years and affect their whole personality and ability to form new attachment relationships with the adoptive parents (van IJzendoorn and Juffer 2005

It is also concluded that adoption is a notable involvement that result to astounding catch-up ability of a child . History and ethology advocates that all species are adapted to adopt . Adoption contributes in developing and improving the personality of the child to help them recover from extremely adverse circumstances in their pasts

Conclusion

Early childhood attachments affect the child 's personality and future attachment with other people that they may encounter , as well as their social and communication skills . Attachment problems results from traumatic experiences from early childhood occurrences that may affect the child 's view and understanding about the world and the people around him

Children who experienced insecure and disorganized attachment from their caregivers tend to have a lower self-esteem , social instability and attachment diss . They find it hard to trust other people and see the world as a danger place to live in with cold people existing in it . In contrast , secured children are more eager and excited to learn about life , easy to trust other people , and see their caregiver as very loving and affectionate people

Age of an adoptee is also a factor in the child 's ability to form attachment with his adoptive parents . Infants are easier to adjust and cope with their new surrounding with their new family . Moreover , lesser conflicts about social and emotional issues are being encountered by both the parents and the children . While older children who already have more experiences in life and remembers more things such as traumatic events or neglectful attachment figures need a longer time to adjust to their new environment

In addition , those who stayed longer in an orphanage or institution who experienced low affection and attention from the organizers also have poor security attachment , lower catch-ups , and cognitive and emotional stability . Due to probability of behavioral problems of older adoptees more adoptive parents prefer infants for adoption than those who have stayed longer in institutions

However , whether , infants or older children will be chosen by the family , proper managing of attachment and other psychological issues that may arouse in adoption system is substantial . For every adoptee the feeling of grief and loss will always be with them , that is why social attachment and security should be shown to them to illuminate the feeling of unwantedness that they may feel in the future . Adjusting would be very challenging especially for older children , a lot of effort and attention should be given to them fo r the successful building of attachment between the parent and child

For a successful building of attachment between the adoptive parents and children , it is very important to consider these factors that affect the children 's personality and social ability . Know more about the child 's history so that one can understand and adjust to him completely . Make them feel secure because every individual needs it . Adoption particularly international programs , help boosts the child 's social emotional , and cognitive development

When you adopt a child , you give him a chance to live a normal life , be loved , and improve his whole personality and ability . Everyone deserves a normal and wonderful family life , even if with your biological or adoptive family

References

Brodzinsky , D (1998 . Attachment Issues in the School-Age Adopted Child . Retrieved January 16 , 2008 from

Chris Fraley , R (2004 . A Brief Overview of Adult Attachment Theory and Research . Retrieved January 10 , 2008 fromDoCs (2006 . Attachment : Key Issues . Research to Practice Notes [Electronic version] . Retrieved fromElliot , A . J Reis , H . T (2003 . Attachment and exploration in adulthood . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 85 , 317-331

Gray , D (2002 ) Attaching in Adoption . Perspective Press

Lee , E (2003 . The Attachment System throughout the Life Course : Review and Criticisms of Attachment Theory . Retrieved January 10 , 2008 fromMarcovitch , S . et al (1997 . Determinants of Behavioral Problems in Romanian Children in Ontario . International Journal of Behavioral Development , 20 , 17-31 . Retrieved fromNickman , SL Rosenfield , AA , Fine ,

, Macintyre , J .C Pilowsky , D .J Howe , R ,A Derdeyn , A , Gonzales M ,B Forsythe , L Sveda , S ,A (2005 Children in adoptive familes Overview and update . Journal of the American Academy of child and adolescent psychiatry , 44 , 987-995

Pennie et al (2007 . Reconstruction of Adoption . Journal of Counseling and Development , 20 , 17-31 . Retrieved fromThompson , R ,A (2000 ) The legacy of early attachments , child development 71 , 145-152

Thompson , R ,A , Raikes H .A (2005 ) Links Between Risks and Attachment Security : Models of Influence . Applied Developmental Psychology 26 440-455

Van Ijzendoorn , M ,H Juffer , F (2006 ) The Emmanuel Miller Lecture 2006 Adoption as intervention . Meta-analytic evidence for massive catch-up and plasticity in physical socio-emotional and cognitive development . Journal , of child psychology Psychiatry , 47 , 1228-1245

Van Ijzendoorn , M ,H Juffer , F (2005 ) The Importance of Parenting in the Development of Disorganized Attachment : Evidence from a Preventive Intervention Study in Adoptive Families . Journal , of child psychology Psychiatry , 47 , 1228-1245

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