children learning

An understanding of why students often confuse the phonemes /b / and /d begins with understanding the fundamental difference between a phoneme and a grapheme . The term phoneme ' refers to a basic sound found within a language , such as the sounds that are represented by the letters /b / and /d . The grapheme represents the actual symbol used to denote those sounds (Reutzel Cooter , 2004 . In most Indo-European languages , the initial sounds of the words ball ' and dog ' are represented by these same symbols /b / and /d . The problem that children usually have with

these sounds lies not in their confusion of the actual sounds or phonemes , but in the similarities between the two graphemes used to represent them (Goldstein , 2007 . The problem that children usually have is in figuring out which sound goes with which letter - not actually in differentiating the sounds themselves (Macauslan Quinn 1976 . This can be ascertained because it is often the case that children who make the mistake of mixing up the two sounds by reading usually manage to speak without replacing either phoneme with the other (Goldstein , 2007

It is usually the case , therefore , that the problem lies with the visual aspect of the grapheme itself . The letters /b / and /d / are both very similarly constructed : each is made up of a circle with a stick . When trying to differentiate between /b / and /d , children forget which side the stick should be on . Even in the phonologically aware child , each symbol sometimes succeeds in calling to mind both the sounds associated with the two letters (Goldstein , 2007 . However , the child has a problem assigning the correct sound to the proper letter not because of an inherent reading ' problem , but because of an inability to properly orient the form of the letter in to make the decision (Macauslan Quinn , 1976

There as several formal and informal methods of dealing with this form of confusion . One method is simply to teach the letters separately . By teaching the phoneme-grapheme /b / initially , the student is allowed to become thoroughly familiar with the letter and its formation . This familiarity will also extend itself to the sound or phoneme that is to be associated with it . Once the student can distinguish that this (b ) is the letter b ( bee , then that child will be less likely to confuse it with the other . Then , one it is established that the child knows /b / and can distinguish it from all other letters and forms , the phoneme /grapheme /d / can be introduced

Other methods of dealing with this issue exist to deal with a confusion that has already surfaced . Some teachers use mnemonic devices such as the formation of the letter with the hand . By holding the middle finger and the thumb together while allowing the forefinger to stand straight up , one can approximate the formation of /b / on the left hand and /d / on the right . By assigning a name to each formation such as bull ' to the left and dog ' to...