Universitites should have affirmative action policies based on racial/ethnic categories, as part of their admission policies. Why and how?

Affirmative action has been praised and pilloried as the answer to racial inequality . First introduced by President Kennedy in 1961 Affirmative action ' was designed as a method of reducing the discrimination that had remained despite the civil rights laws and constitutional guarantees . It was a method that was put in place as a Temporary Measure to Level the Playing Field ' through the offering of the same opportunities to all Americans

While the Affirmative Action ' plan was intended to have good effects , it resulted in exposing the flaws in the system as Reverse

br Racism ' began to emerge and the Bakke ' case came about where a white male was rejected two years in a row in favor of admitting other minorities through a quota system . This Reverse Racism ' and other flaws led to a mounting anger against Affirmative Action ' and soon it became a Zero Sum Game as jobs and opportunities became open to minorities but not to whites . During this period "Preferential treatment " and "quotas " became expressions of contempt

There has been a growing difficulty now in appreciating the Affirmative Action ' as even liberals have adopted the stance that affirmative action may even result in injustice as in the case of Wygant in 1986 where black employees kept their jobs while white employees with seniority were laid off . Recent cases have once again brought Affirmative Action ' into public view as in 2003 the Supreme Court decided that there was a right of affirmative action in higher education

The relevance of this decision is that it somewhat creates a measure by which affirmative action can be implemented . In the 2003 Michigan Cases , it was stated that Affirmative action was intended to promote a Compelling State Interest ' in diversity in not only a particular aspect of society but on all levels

It is therefore the goal of this proponent to prove that Affirmative action is indeed needed in Universities all over the United States There are many good reasons as to why affirmative action should be allowed in Universities and by the end of this discussion it will be duly proven that affirmative action is indeed needed in Universities

The first reason is based on the ruling of the Supreme Court in the case of the University of Michigan where the doctrine allowing affirmative action was lain down . In this case , there were two (2 ) cases that were d against the University of Michigan , one by two students , Jennifer Gratz and Peter Hamacher , who were refused admission into the college and another by Barbara Grutter who was turned down by the law school The ruling in this case was that affirmative action in Universities is permitted by law and the United States Constitution . The court reached its decision on the basis of the previous ruling in University of California Regents v . Bakke where it was expressly held that race could be used as a positive factor in determining the admission and hiring practices of Universities . The Court added , however , that race should not be the sole factor in determining such

The reason for such a ruling is best expressed by the statement contained in one of the briefs presented in the University of Michigan Case

Because racial diversity in higher education also is necessary to integrate the officer corps and to train and educate white and minority officers , it is essential to ensuring an effective , battle-ready fighting force . This is indisputably a compelling government interest `It is obvious and unarguable that no governmental interest is more compelling than the security of the Nation

The goal of affirmative action therefore is diversity in not only Universities but in all strata of society . This same diversity which was the basis of the Supreme Court in deciding in favor of affirmative action in the University of Michigan is the ultimate goal of affirmative action

A very integral part of the education process lies in learning to interact with other races and nationalities , especially in the United States which is considered as a melting pot for all cultures and races all over the world . The sad reality is that most Americans are brought up in relative isolation from other races and cultures and only in college does such exposure occur . This leads to undesirable consequences such as the creation of strong stereotypes and racial biases . The implementation of an affirmative action plan in universities will help students interact with one another and to learn from people of other cultures and races and maybe help them to come to a better understanding and tolerance for other races . It is this relevance of diversity in the development of one 's education that is the reason why affirmative action must be allowed

Another reason why affirmative action must be allowed in Universities is because it levels the playing field and allows the minority students a chance to succeed in education and ultimately life . Statistics show that the minorities have relatively lesser in life than average white Americans . These minorities often come from lower income families that cannot afford to send their children to private schools . The communities that these minorities come from are often crime infested areas . These students are just as capable intellectually and as hard working as their white counterparts but are often denied admission into good college programs because of their financial and racial backgrounds Affirmative action levels the playing field and gives those minority students a chance at a better education and a better life

FIGURES COMAPRING BLACKS FROM WHITES

Life expectancy of a black child Five years shorter than a white child Six years shorter

Risk of a black woman dying during childbirth Three times as likely 3-1 /2 times as likely

Infant mortality rate for blacks Twice that of whites Slightly more than twice

Black families below the poverty line Four times the number of white families Unchanged

Unemployment rate for black adults Twice that of whites Unchanged

Unemployment rate for black teens Three times that of whites Unchanged

Median income of a black family 60 percent of a white family 's 66 percent

Lawyers and judges 1 .2 percent black 5 .1 percent

Physicians 2 .0 percent black 5 .6 percent

Engineers 1 .1 percent black 5 .5 percent

College and university professors 2 .6 percent black 6 .1 percent To further corroborate the argument previously presented , the implementation of affirmative action in Universities will allow the minorities the chance at a better education because no they will be able to study certain fields that they never even previously considered and even work in areas that they were never even aware of . The reason for this is that the education that these deserving and capable minority students would receive if they were not accepted at Universities would never provide them with the opportunity to broaden their horizons Universities offer so much in the way of education and in expanding the scope of one 's knowledge . Providing for preferences for these minority students will ensure that they will be able to learn all that University has to offer and in doing so also improve the socioeconomic status of these minorities

Finally , the last reason why affirmative action must be allowed in Universities is because it is the key to the further development of the United States , not only in an economic aspect but a social aspect as well . The diversity that was cited as the compelling reason for upholding the policy of the University of Michigan is integral in not only the development of one 's education but in the growth of the United States as well . As argued in the brief of General Motors in support of the policy of the University of Michigan

Companies whose managers understand the importance of forging relationships with diverse communities .enhance their business opportunities . Author John Fernandez cites as one example General Motors ' closure of a 1 billion automotive deal with China . The deal was aided by China 's appreciation of the corporation 's prior outreach efforts to Asian-American employees and the Asian-American community

This benefit of diversity is not limited to the economic sense but should be extended to all aspects of society including one 's education and in Universities as well

The growing diversity is the American population is another reason affirmative action should be allowed

The population of the United States is increasingly defined by its diversity . Two years after Bakke was decided , the 1980 census showed that African Americans , Native Americans , Asian Americans , and Hispanics constituted 20 of the nation 's population . By 1999 , those groups made up 28 percent of the population of the United States . And by one estimate , these groups will constitute almost half -- 47 percent -- of the United States ' population by the year 2050 As the United States continues to grow in population size , the impact that the minorities have on the future of America will no longer be a minor one , to say the least . Without affirmative action , these minorities will not be able to take advantage of the opportunities that America has to offer . Affirmative action is the future of a great America . An America as envisioned by the forefathers who declared that no person shall be denied the right to life , liberty or property just on the basis of the color of his skin . Affirmative action is not about segregating people or creating a different class . Affirmative action is about creating opportunities for those who have and building relationships that will ensure that America can remains as the great country that it has been and is for ages to come

References

Faegin , Joe and O 'Brien , Eileen (2003 ) White Men on Race : Power Privilege and the Shaping of Cultural Consciousness ' 2003

Greenhouse , Linda (1997 "A Case on Race Puts Justice O 'Connor in a Familiar Pivotal Role " The New York Times , August 4 , 1997

Holmes , Steven (1996 "On Civil Rights , Clinton Steers a Bumpy Course The New York Times , October 20 , 1996

Holmes , Steven (1996 ) Re-rethinking Affirmative Action " The New York Times , September 7 , 1996

Richey , Warren (2005 ) The Evolution of Affirmative Action ' The Christian Science Monitor . August 23 , 2005

Brief of 29 Former Leaders of the United States Armed Forces in support of the University

General Motors Corporation 's Brief in Support of the University

Brief of 65 Leading Fortune 500 ' American Businesses in Support of the University

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