Secret Society`s in Europe 1815-1914

SECRET SOCIETIES IN EUROPE BETWEEN 1815-1914

Introduction

Throughout centuries secret societies have been affecting history not to a lesser extent , than official governments and leaders , moreover , often those secret societies managed to obtain official power . 19-th century Europe is not an exception . This is to examine the role of the secret societies in the European political life in the period between 1815 and 1914 , focusing mainly on the ones , which strived for national liberation or against oppression of their nation . In particular they will be the Serbian Black Hand ' which is

going to be compared with Irish Republican Brotherhood ' and Italian Carbonari . Their origins , aims and achievements shall be subject to comparative analysis in to show the similarities and differences between them

The Black Hand

The Black Hand continued the tradition of Serbian nationalism , which has developed after centuries of severe Turkish oppression . It was October 8 , 1908 , just two days after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina when many men , some of them ranking Serbian ministers , officials and generals , held a meeting at City Hall in Belgrade . They founded a semi-secret society - Narodna Odbrana (National Defense ) which gave Pan-Slavism a focus and an organization . The purpose of the group was to recruit and train partisans for a possible war between Serbia and Austria . They also undertook anti-Austrian propaganda and organized spies and saboteurs to operate within the empire 's provinces . Satellite groups were formed in Slovinia , Bosnia , Herzegovina and Istria . The organization became a direct predecessor of the Black Hand

Since limited actions could not satisfy the Serbian demands for Great Serbia , many of Narodna Odbrana members formed a new , and again secret , organization to continue the terrorist actions , ten men met on May 9 , 1911 to form Ujedinjenje ili Smrt (Union or Death , which became known as The Black Hand . Early members included Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic , the chief of the Intelligence Department of the Serbian General Staff , Major Voja Tankosic and Milan Ciganovic . Dragutin Dimitrijevic , who used the codename , Apis , established himself as the leader of the Black Hand

The Black Hand took over the terrorist actions of Narodna Odbrana , and worked deliberately at obscuring any distinctions between the two groups , trading on the prestige and network of the older organization Black Hand members held important army and government positions . Crown Prince Alexander was an enthusiastic and financial supporter . The group held influence over government appointment and policy . The Serbian government was fairly well informed of Black Hand activities

The main objective of the Black Hand was the creation , by means of violence , of a Greater Serbia . Its stated aim was "To realize the national ideal , the unification of all Serbs . This organization prefers terrorist action to cultural activities it will therefore remain secret

The Black Hand trained guerillas and saboteurs and arranged political murders . It was organized at the grassroots level in 3 to 5-member cells . Above them were district committees . Above them , was the Central committee in Belgrade . At the top was the ten-member Executive Committee , headed by Apis himself . Members rarely knew much more than the members of their own cell and one superior above them , to ensure that the group 's leaders would remain secret . New members swore .before God , on my honor and my life , that I will execute all missions and commands without question . I swear before God , on my honor and on my life , that I will take all the secrets of this organization into my grave with me

By 1914 there were around 2 ,500 members of the Black Hand . The group was mainly made up of junior army officers but also included lawyers journalists and university professors . About 30 of these lived and worked in Bosnia-Herzegovina . However , those numbers include only active members , and taking into account all the sympathizers one can say , that the Black Hand became a state within a state . Those bureaucrats and politicians not already members of the shady outfit , obeyed its express or perceived wishes out of terror , more imagined than exercised . The army was entirely in thrall . The accelerated advance of Dimitrijevic through the ranks serves proof of the growing influence of his cankerous outfit . He became professor of tactics at the Military Academy where he taught subversion and terror more than military strategy . By 1913 , he was chief of intelligence , as we mentioned and by 1916 he was attained the rank of colonel at the age of 40 . Later he confessed , that he planned not only the murder of Franz Ferdinand , but the murders of King Nicholas of Montenegro , King Constantine of Greece , the German Kaiser and King Ferdinand of Bulgaria

However , of those planned assassinations , the Black Hand managed to commit only one , which became possibly the most famous and determining political murders of the century - the murder of the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand . The choice of the victim was not occasional . It may seem strange , but it was exactly Franz Ferdinand who advocated the idea to provide Slavic inhabitants of the Austro-Hungarian Empire with more rights and freedoms , turning the State from dual monarchy into a triple one . Those intentions would lead to downfall of the Slavic nationalism within Austro-Hungary and deprive Serbian extremists of their potential allies

So , in August 1914 Apis decided that Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir-apparent of Austria , should be assassinated . Towards that end three young Bosnian-Serbs were recruited and trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship . Princip , Cabrinovic ' and Grabez were smuggled across the b back into Bosnia via a chain of underground-railroad style contacts . The decision to kill the Archduke was apparently initiated by Apis , and not sanctioned by the full Executive Committee . Those involved probably realized that their plot would invite war between Austria and Serbia . They had every reason to expect that Russia would side with Serbia . In all likelihood , they did not anticipate that their little war would mushroom into world war

Others in the government and some on the Black Hand Executive Council were not as confident of Russian aid . Russia had let them down recently When word of the plot percolated through Black Hand leadership and the Serbian government , Apis was told not to proceed . He made a half-hearted attempt to intercept the young assassins at the b , but they had already crossed . This 'recall ' appears to make Apis look like a loose cannon , and the young assassins as independent zealots . In fact , the 'recall ' took place a full two weeks before the Archduke 's visit . The assassins idled around in Sarajevo for a month . Nothing more was done to stop them . The extensive network of contacts that smuggled them into Sarajevo , fed and housed them , was not utilized to stop them . This calls into question the Black Hand 's and the Serbian government 's desire that the plot truly be cancelled

Whatever they really desired , but the Archduke was killed in Sarajevo by one of the smuggled terrorist - Gavrila Princip on June 28 1914 . It was a challenge and on Serbia 's national day at that . The Austrians were elated having been handed the excuse to educate Serbia and cut it to size . They issued an ultimatum and the rest is the history of the first truly global conflict , the First World War

At this war Serbia at first suffered a number of military defeats however managed to remain independent . Towards the end of 1916 , Prime Minister Pasic decided to destroy the leaders of the Black Hand and break up the organization . By the spring of 1917 , many Black Hand leaders , including Apis , had been arrested . A sham trial before a military tribunal was held in May 1917 for Apis and others . Among the charges was that the Black Hand had attempted to murder Prince Regent Alexander . Though the number of witnesses against them were numerous the evidence cited was nearly all hearsay or outright fabrications . Apis and six others were sentenced to death . Three obtained commutations to long prison terms , but Apis and three comrades were executed by firing squad on June 26 , 1917

In June 1917 , the Black Hand was outlawed . Intriguing and insurrection by their very nature , however , are not bothered by legalities . A new organization - The White Hand - was formed from trustworthy men of Narodna Odbrana . It continued the imperialistic work of the Black Hand using the same techniques . In what became Yugoslavia after the war , the White Hand grew into an essential piece of the state 's machinery

Concluding the of the Black Hand one can say , that it managed to achieve it 's aims in a certain way . For the World it 's activities led to the escalation of WWI , however , Serbia received really great benefits from the war , as soon as it was able to rejoin into Yugoslavia after the collapse of Austro-Hungarian Empire

Irish Republican Brotherhood

The Irish Republican Brotherhood , also known as "Fenians , was an Irish revolutionary secret society , founded in the USA by John O 'Mahony in 1858 . O 'Mahony , who was a Celtic scholar , named his organization after the Fianna , the legendary band of Irish warriors led by Fionn mac Cumhail

After the failure of William Smith O 'Brien 's attempted rebellion in 1848 , O 'Mahony , who was involved in it , escaped abroad , and since 1852 had been living in New York . Another rebel - James Stephens , had established himself in Paris , and was in correspondence with O 'Mahony and other radical nationalists home and abroad

The objective of Stephens , O 'Mahony , and other leaders of the movement was to organize a global league of Irishmen against British dominance in Ireland . The organization was modelled on that of the Jacobins of the French Revolution , even with own "Committee of Public Safety " in Paris and a number of subsidiary committees and affiliated clubs . The Fenians soon established themselves in Australia , South America , Canada , and above all in the United States , as well as in the large cities of Great Britain such as London , Manchester , and Glasgow . However , the Fenians never gained much influence on the tenant-farmers or agricultural labourers in Ireland the movement was also not supported by the Catholic Church , as indeed were all Irish separatist movements that advocated the use of force

About the same time the Irish People , a revolutionary journal , was started in Dublin , and for two years advocated armed rebellion and appealed for aid to Irishmen who had had military experience after the American Civil War . At the close of that war in 1865 , numbers of Irish who had borne arms flocked to Ireland , and the plans for a plot came to be . The government , well served as usual by informers , now turned to actions . In September 1865 the Irish People was suppressed , and several of the more prominent Fenians were sentenced to terms of penal servitude . The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended in the beginning of 1866 and a number of persons were arrested . Despite of proclamation of an imminent general rising in Ireland , a few Irish-American officers , who landed at Cork in the expectation of commanding an army against England were locked up in gaol sporadic disturbances around the country were easily suppressed by the police , army and local militias

Despite of this defeat , the remaining Fenians in the USA continued to rise money and arms . In December 1867 , John O 'Neill became president of the Fenian Brotherhood in America , which in the following year held a great convention in Philadelphia attended by over 400 properly accredited delegates , while 6000 Fenian soldiers , armed and in uniform paraded the streets . Henri Le Caron , who , while acting as a secret agent of the British government , held the position of "Inspector-General of the Irish Republican Army " asserted that he distributed fifteen thousand stands of arms and almost three million rounds of ammunition in the care of the many trusted men stationed between Ogdensburg , New York and St . Albans , Vermont , in preparation for the intended raid . It took place in April 1870 , and proved a failure just as rapid and complete as the attempt of 1866 . The Fenians under O 'Neill 's command crossed the Canadian frontier near Franklin , Vermont , but were dispersed by a single volley from Canadian volunteers while O 'Neill himself was promptly arrested by the United States authorities acting under the s of President Ulysses S . Grant . Yet another attempt and failure would take place in 1871 near the Red River in Manitoba

Meanwhile in Ireland the Fenian leaders including Colonel Thomas J Kelly "Deputy Central Organiser of the Irish Republic " were arrested and sentenced . Some of them managed to flee to America , however , the movement itself suffered the final defeat as an influencial force after 1870

Carbonari

Is a common name for a number of secret societies of a revolutionary tendency , which played an active part in the history of Italy and France in the early and mid 19-th century . It is usually considered , that Carbonari originated from the freemasons unions at the time of Napoleonic wars . During Joachim Murat 's rule a their aim was to liberate Italy from foreign dominance and establish a new state on the basis of constitutional liberties . Nevertheless , separate movements at the time have not reached consensus as for particular form of government

The first dis , inspired by Carbonari , broke out in Calabria in 1813 , however , they have soon been oppressed by the French , and some of the Carbonari leaders were hanged . At the time the Carbonari received quite an unexpected assistance from the Murat 's minister of secret police Malghella , a Genoese , who favored the Carbonari movement . After failure of the revolt he continued to support and even organize Carbonari , so that on the return of the Bourbons in 1815 King Ferdinand IV found the kingdom swarming with them . The society comprised officers noblemen , landlords , officials and even priests . It 's organization was both curious and mysterious , and had a fantastic ritual , taken partially from Christian religion , and partially from the Masonic customs . A lodge was called vendita (Sale , God - a Grand Master of the Universe , Christ - Honorary Grand Master or Lamb and every Carbonaro was pledged to deliver the Lamb from the Wolf (i .e . tyranny . It 's red , blue and black flag - a standard revolutionary flag in Italy was substituted by the national red green and white in 1831

As soon as King Ferdinand felt himself safely re-established in Naples he decided to eliminate unnecessary Carbonari . To these ends the minister of secret police prince of Canosa established an another secret society , which he called the Calderai del Contrappeso (braziers of the counterpoise , but failed to exterminate the movement . On the contrary Carbonarism flourished and spread to other parts of Italy , and countless lodges sprang up , their adherents comprising persons in all ranks of society

The first rising actively promoted by the Carbonari was the Neapolitan revolution of 1820 . Several regiments were composed entirely of persons affiliated to the society , and on the 1st of July a military mutiny broke out in Monteforte led by two officers - Morelli and Silvati proclaiming "God , the King and the Constitution . The troops sent against them , under General Pepe , himself a Carbonaro , sympathized with the mutineers , and the king , being powerless to resist , granted the constitution (13th of July , which he swore on the Altar to observe . But the Carbonari were unable to carry on the government , and after the separatist revolt of Sicily had broken out the king went to the Congress of Leibach and obtained a loan and an army from the Emperor of Austria

He returned to Naples early in 1821 with 50 ,000 Austrians , defeated the constitutionalists under Pepe , dismissed parliament , and set to work to persecute all who had been in any way connected with the movement . A similar movement broke out in Piedmont in March 1821 . Here as in Naples the Carbonari comprised many men of rank , such as Santorre di Santarosa Count San Marzano , Giacinto di Collegno , and Count Moffa di Lisio , all officers in the army , and they were more or less encouraged by Charles Albert , the heir-presumptive to the throne . The rising was crushed , and a number of the leaders were condemned to death or long terms of imprisonment , but most of them escaped

Following risings at Romagna , Modena and Parma have also been easily suppressed by the local rulers together with Austrian forces , same happened with the revolts by French Carbonari in Thouars and La Rochelle

Even though the Carbonari movement went down , and did not actively contribute to the wars and revolutions of 1848-49 , 1859-6o and 1866 , it prepared the way for those events . One of its chief merits was that it brought Italians of different classes and provinces together , and taught them to work in harmony for the overthrow of tyranny and foreign rule

Conclusions

The three secret societies , investigated in this were all of national character , striving either for national liberation or national greatness . However , one of them (the Black Hand ) virtually succeeded even being terminated itself , another one (the Fenians ) achieved nothing , and the third one (Carbonari ) initially achieved certain results , but later felt down

In to clarify the reasons of such different achievement one should find some distinctive factor , which was favorable for ones and unfavorable for the others . In the case of the three named societies such factor is outside support

The Black Hand originated with almost uncovered support by the State of Serbia and indirect support by Russian Empire . With such mighty allies the society managed to become the most influential secret groups on the Balkans and shake the entire course of history . However , it could do nothing after loosing it 's patrons

The Fenians , in turn , never enjoyed support by any State or other power , so they could only land in Ireland to be arrested and prosecuted by the English

The Carbonari at first had mighty support by Britain and home officials so their gains have at first been outstanding . But as soon as they fulfilled their mission and became a load for their former advocates they have been terminated without any considerable effort . Therefore the conclusion is , that secret societies with political aims can hardly exist by their own means and can only be effective with some outside support

References

Micheal Shackelford , The Black Hand , cited from : HYPERLINK "http /www .lib .byu .edu /estu /wwi /comment /blk-hand .html http /www .lib .byu .edu /estu /wwi /comment /blk-hand .html (visited 02 .04 .2006

Garry Sheffield , Forgotten Victory , First World War : Myths and reality Headline review , London , 2002

Vaknin , The Union of Death : Terrorists and Freedom Fighters in the Balkans , 2nd edition , A Narcissus Publications Imprint , Skopje 2004

R .V . Comerford , The Fenians in Context : Irish Politics and Society 1848-82 , Wolfhound Presss , 1985

The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica , Volume V05

Micheal Shackelford , The Black Hand , cited from : HYPERLINK "http /www .lib .byu .edu /estu /wwi /comment /blk-hand .html http /www .lib .byu .edu /estu /wwi /comment /blk-hand .html (visited 02 .04 .2006 , hereinafter cited as : Shackelford

Shakelford

Shackelford

Garry Sheffield , Forgotten Victory , First World War : Myths and reality Headline review , London , 2002 , at

. 34 , hereinafter cited as : Sheffield

Sam Vaknin , The Union of Death : Terrorists and Freedom Fighters in the Balkans , 2nd edition , A Narcissus Publications Imprint , Skopje 2004 , at br

. 36 . Hereinafter cited as : Vaknin

Sheffield at

. 41

Shakelford

R .V . Comerford , The Fenians in Context : Irish Politics and Society 1848-82 , Wolfhound Presss , 1985 , at pp . 21-27

R .V . Comerford , The Fenians in Context : Irish Politics and Society 1848-82 , Wolfhound Presss , 1985 , at pp . 49-60

The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica , Volume V05 , at

. 308

Encyclopedia Britannica . Supra note ...