John Locke (Themes in the works of john locke, Criticisms of the works of john locke, and Contemporary, sociological significance of john locke’s work

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Themes in the works of John Locke Themes in the works of John Locke John Locke (1632-1704 ) is regarded one the greatest empiricist ever Locke 's contemporary political and intellectual milieu was of turmoil but also considered as one of the most extraordinary centuries of English history . This century is marked with distinct conflicts between Crown and Parliament that extended beyond different religious sects i .e Protestants , Anglicans and Catholics and resulted into civil war in the 1640s . Locke 's writings are a philosophical and intellectual reflection of the

contemporary problems and their solutions (Cranston , 1957 The essential doctrines of Locke 's philosophical efforts are presented in his most accomplished work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690 ) that epitomizes the finale of two decades reflection on various philosophical and intellectual issues . Determining the limits of human understanding was the main impetus behind this monumental work as Locke himself explains For I thought that the first Step towards satisfying the several Enquiries , the Mind of Man was apt to run into , was , to take a Survey of our own Understandings , examine our own Powers , and see to what Things they were adapted . Till that was done , I suspected that we began at the wrong end , and in vain sought for Satisfaction in a quiet and secure Possession of Truths , that most concern 'd us whilst we let loose our Thoughts into the vast Ocean of Being , as if all the boundless Extent were the natural and undoubted Possessions of our Understandings wherein there was nothing that escaped its Decisions , or that escaped its Comprehension . Thus Men , extending their Enquiries beyond their Capacities , and letting their Thoughts wander into those depths where they can find no sure Footing `tis no Wonder , that they raise Questions and multiply Disputes , which never coming to any clear Resolution , are proper to only continue and increase their Doubts , and to confirm them at last in a perfect Skepticism . Whereas were the Capacities of our Understanding well considered , the Extent of our Knowledge once discovered , and the Horizon found , which sets the boundary between the enlightened and the dark Parts of Things between what is and what is not comprehensible by us , Men would perhaps with less scruple acquiesce in the avow 'd Ignorance of the one and employ their Thoughts and Discourse , with more Advantage and Satisfaction in the other (I .1 .7 br

. 47 Hr further eloborates that his purpose is "to enquire into the Original Certainty and Extant of human knowledge , together with the grounds and degrees of Belief , Opinion and Assent " he is going to begin with ideas -- the materials out of which knowledge is constructed . His first task is to "enquire into the Original of these Ideas .and the ways whereby the Understanding comes to be furnished with them (I . 1 . 3 .

. 44 ) The fundamental principle presented in this work was an eloborated argument that all our ideas , simple or intricate , are drived from experiences . He defines `idea ' and says that it .stands for whatsoever is the Object of the Understanding , when a man thinks (Essay I , 1 , 8 ,

br 47 )He further explains that the culmination point of this empiricist approach is our capibility to knowledge is restricted in its scope and certainty as our experiences are limited and uncertain . For example our knowledge of materialsubstances is based on its secondary qualities whereas we have no reach to its primary qualities i .e . their essential inner nature and chracteristics

Although some previous philosophers and scholars ventured on the same of limitations of human understanding or intellect ' but Locke 's work was an extended and elaborated one . In all the four books of the Essay on Human Understanding , Locke takes into account the different manifestation of sources and character of human knowledge

In the first book , Locke provides arguments against the assumption that humans possess no innate knowledge . So innately , human mind is tabula rasa , a blank slate on which human experiences cast their imprints Locke views this inborn blankness as an empirical premise and says that this preposition falls in the domain of abstractness as there is no substantiation available to sustain this hypothesis

In the second book , Locke further elaborates this innateness as "some primary notions .Characters as it were stamped upon the Mind of Man which the Soul receives in its very first Being and brings into the world with it (I . 2 . 1 .

. 48 ) There are no innate ideas "stamped upon the mind " from birth and yet impressions of sense are not the only source of knowledge "The mind furnishes the understanding with ideas (Bk . 2 :1 :5 . In this part of the book , he provides the answer to he question that if ideas are not innate , then where it comes from ? He reinforces that ideas are the manifestation of experiences and their only source and origin is experience . He further distinguishes idea into two main types , sensation and reflection , and illustrates that sensation inform us about things and processes in the outside world whereas reflection is concerning the operations of our inner world or own minds Some of our ideas are derived from sensation , some from reflection whereas others originate from both

Locke further creates an analogy between the manner atoms merge into compounds to create material objects and the manner ideas coalesce with each other to form complex and intricate ideas . This manifest hat we are unable to create simple ideas as these are derived from experiences whereas we can from complex ideas by the processes of mind that fuse simple ideas to convert these into complex one . He further presents the ideas about atoms that he derived from Galileo , Descartes and his mentor Robert Boyle . He elaborates those ideas and says that atoms have specific characteristics as they are extended , solid , of a specific shape and are in a dynamic or static condition . They motion or rest They unite collectively to create the recognizable substances and physical objects

The next book is related to nature of language and its relation with ideas and its contribution toward the accumulation and transfer of knowledge . The last book concludes his preceding contemplation and applies the domino effect of the previous books to verify the nature and extent of knowledge

Another contribution of Locke is in the political domain that materializes through his Two Treatises of Government . The two main motives were to justify the absolute rule of the monarch and to counter the notions of divine doctrine of governance and present a viable theory to reconcile the rights of the masses with the contemporary political . His principle suppositions were to discard the divine doctrine of Robert Filmer that was presented in his Patriarcha . The first Treatise is immersed with criticism of Filmer 's theory

But his political doctrines , presented and elaborated in the second Treatise , have been established as pivotal theories in the social and political philosophy . Its basic concepts include toil is the source and cause of property the social contract between the individual and government or the consent of the masses is the basis of a lawful government and this contact or consent draws the limitations of the government . These doctrines imply the individual freedom and independence

Locke asserts that no government exists in natural state and it is political society that necessitates a government . He negates the common belief that economic activity necessitated He further says that innately all men are equal and independent in their rights and in primitive conditions , there was nothing but men 's labor produced the civic society an better living conditions . With the multiplication of population and scarcity of land , rules were needed beside moral or natural laws . This necessitated the government and men agreed to delegate this function to certain officers Two important works of Locke are Thoughts concerning Education and his Conduct of the Understanding . Both works are significant in the history of educational theory . These works are an extension of his earlier works in the educational domain . He says that education leads to the growth of mind and its capacity to generate and to combines more ideas and transforms those ideas into solid and concrete form with the application of knowledge . He held that "the minds of children [are] as easily turned , this way or that , as water itself ( Thoughts concerning Education ) He underrated innate differences "we are born with faculties and powers , capable almost of anything " and "as it is in the body , so it is in the mind , practice makes it what it is " Along with this view went a profound conviction of the importance of education , and of the breadth of its aim . It has to fit men for life -- for the world , rather than for the university . Instruction in knowledge does not exhaust it it is essentially a training of character Certain scholars are of the view that his theory of innate ideas are in complete resemblance with Berkeley and Hume where as it substantially differs from Descartes and Leibniz . They further assert that Locke 's version of innateness is related to the empiricist truism that there is nothing in the intellect that was not previously in the senses -- where the senses are broadened to include reflection (Bennett , 1971 Chappell , 1994 Lowe , E .J , 1995 ) This first part of this analysis is true in its content whereas the assertion that Locke theory of innateness is a transformed version of the old adage is not valid Locke 's has reserved most of An Essay Concerning Human Understanding to explain and elaborate his theory . His discussed in detail every manifestation and aspect of his assumption and supported it with empirical arguments

Norman Kretzmann , the prominent linguistic writer , asserts that Locke 's claim `words in their primary or immediate signification signify nothing but the ideas in the mind of him that uses them ' is his core semantic thesis . See Norman Kretzmann "The Main Thesis of Locke 's Semantic Theory " in Tipton , 1977 . pp . 123-140 This preposition of Locke 's is considered as a as an archetypal error in semantic theory Kretzmann , however , is of the view that that Locke differentiate between meaning and reference and that ideas only offer the meaning but not the reference of words . So , he asserts that criticism of this Lockeian thesis is ill-conceived and has no grounds

Another criticism of Locke 's theories are related to his thesis about atomic substratum that it is incoherent and it manifest that we have a particular without any properties that is not aligned with the basics of empiricism . Michael Ayers is of the view that Locke 's concept of `substratum ' and `substance in general ' is not fully understood by his critics as it means that the genuine quintessence of a material substance is its atomic constitution . This atomic constitution is the fundamental foundation of all the observable properties of the thing . So Locke 's claim that concept of matter in general is also a `something I know not what ' means that the real essences of material things are quite unidentified to us

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is a combination of Descartes `way of ideas ' and the Oxford scientific spirit that capacitated him a proper standpoint to evaluate the rationalist elements in Descartes philosophy . In this regard , he states in the Epistle to the Reader at the beginning of the Essay

The commonwealth of learning is not at this time without master-builders , whose mighty designs , in advancing the sciences , will leave lasting monuments to the admiration of posterity : but every one must not hope to be a Boyle or a Sydenham and in an age that produces such masters as the great Huygenius and the incomparable Mr . Newton with some others of that strain , it is ambition enough to be employed as an under-labourer in clearing the ground a little , and removing some of the rubbish that lies in the way to knowledge (pp . 9-10 . Nidditch edition of An Essay Concerning Human Understanding

In his Two Treatises of Government , he refutes the Filmer 's claim that absolute sovereignty of Adam , and so of kings as Adam 's heirs . Although Locke 's argument has been only too effectual but his lengthy and exhaustive retort to so illogical an idea becomes itself dreary but the Second Treatises of Government the offers a systematic account of the foundations of political obligation and erects as a political thinker of some stature References

Aaron , R . and Gibb , J . eds (1936 ) An Early Draft of Locke 's Essay

Aaron , Richard (1937 ) John Locke , Oxford , Oxford University Press

Ashcraft , Richard (1986 ) Revolutionary Politics and Locke 's Two Treatises of Civil Government , Princeton , Princeton University Press .]

Ayers , Michael (1991 ) Locke : Epistemology and Ontology , 2 volumes London Routledge

Bennett , Jonathan (1971 ) Locke , Berkeley , Hume : Central Themes , Oxford Oxford University Press

Chappell , Vere (1994 ) The Cambridge Companion to Locke , Cambridge Cambridge University Press

David L . Thomas , Locke on Government . Routledge , 1995

Lowe , E . J (1995 )Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Locke on Human Understanding .Routledge

Lowe , E .J (1995 ) Locke on Human Understanding , London , Routledge Publishing Co

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