The Influence of Culture and Political Climate on Aviation Security Policies and Procedures

Running Head : Culture and Aviation

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A Historical Perspective

Japan is a country made of thousands of islands . Indeed all its international bs with other countries are located in the ocean (Volka Miyahara , 2005 . That being the case , the country has for many decades had to rely on air transport as link with other countries and with islands that constitute the Japanese nationhood . The dependence on air transportation was minimal before the World War II . However , the end of war resulted to increased demand for

communication with other countries . As a key player in the war , Japanese economy and had been destroyed , especially by the two nuclear bombs were dropped Americans Robust economic reconstruction that was taking place in Japan demanded that the country improve its transportation systems - this was to facilitate smooth flow of goods , services and labor into and out of Japan . This formed the key foundation for Japanese air transport industry that will be the focus of this . Private companies and the Japanese government embarked on the improvement of air transport systems in the country the state concentrated on the reconstitution and development of the infrastructure , whereas private companies embarked on investing in airlines among other services . The cooperation between the two stakeholders has been going on ever since . The result : a world-class airline industry that has been setting international standards (McFadyen , 2004 ,

. 25 ) as well as helping developing nations improves their industries to international ICAO standards (ICAO , 2008

The Japanese economy grew by leaps and bounds between the end of the World War II and 1990 . In just four decades Japan was able top shag-off war hangovers and ended up becoming one of the world 's best performing economies . Japan is today the second largest economy in the world Japan (Japan Government , 2006 . The country 's airline industry has been at the forefront of this economic expansion and has in-turn benefited immensely . The efficiency exemplified by the industry has enabled international and Japanese business travelers to afford undertaking their engagements with ease . The industry has actually exceeded their influence into both regional (Asian ) and international scene

Japan has used its comparative advantage in technological know-how to increase the industry 's efficiency , productivity and competitiveness in the global arena . Indeed , it can be argued that the extensive use of technology has been the greatest factor that has set the industry apart with its international counterparts . Technology has been applied in virtually all aspects of the industry . For instance , whereas other countries were dealing with baggage and passenger scanning manually Japan was already using technology in its airport facilities (Volka Miyahara , 2005 . The same is happening with the extra scanning that was introduced after September 11 , 2001 terrorist attack in United States Some other countries are still struggling with measures to apply . In addition , while the United States has been looking for cabin security through armed pilots , Japan has embarked on using more precise technology in preventing danger while on transit

In matters pertaining to passenger , crew and facility safety , Japanese has been using technology as the most preventative measure (MOFA , 2006 . This is contrary to the US approach of using Air Marshals and the arming some cabin crews . As it will be discussed in latter sections , Japan hardly makes use of guns as a way of preventing passenger and cabin crew against terrorist attacks . Instead , passengers and crew undergo several screening procedures before they board planes This is believed to be deterring potential terrorists to cause chaos while on transit or airborne . The United States , as well as other nations , should borrow a leaf from their Japanese counterparts

The use of technology in aviation is not unique to the airline industry only the country has been at the forefront of developing and adopting new technology faster that any other country . Indeed , Japan is among the leading nations when it comes to the number of patents awarded to new inventions (DeVol Bedroussian , 2006 ,

. 41 . The continued use of technology in the Japanese industry will be of great advantage to the industry . One can only hope that the Japanese technology being used in aviation and transportation industries could be adopted by other countries in the world . This is because nations have embarked on massive scanning of passengers , which is leading to the development of bottleneck in many airports

Japanese passenger screening

September 2001 terrorist attack in the United States using airplanes increased concerns over safety issues in the world . Stakeholders (passengers , employees ' airlines , and authorities ) have become more conscious on security issues . Most people are actually willing to arrive at local airport several hours before departure due to screening procedures . Being allayed in the airports for screening has therefore become a common place . In some cases , passengers and their baggage have to be screed at both departure and arrival . Passengers have however become accustomed to airport delays . As a result , authorities in some localities have embarked on requesting travelers to arrive at airports few hours before their scheduled departure . Airport authorities have hard time dealing with peak seasons during holidays when million of travelers try to get to their destinations

Airport screening in Japan is a combined effort between government airlines and airport maintenance companies . The role of government is to develop guidelines that are used by security companies to develop the appropriate technologies used in the screening process (Whitelegg , 2003 br

. 96 . The state is also tasked with the responsibility of seeing that all stakeholders in the industry are incorporate in the decision making processes . The state further ensures that all persons and entities follow the laid down scanning procedures . Since most of the scanning in computerized , government agencies are left with the task of ensuring overseeing scanning process and taking appropriate actions ion individuals , cargo or baggage that violates the laid down guidelines (MOFA , 2006

On their part , airport maintenance companies have their equipment and employees scanned on entry to airport facilities . Employees of these companies have to undergo some various training modules that equip them with security skills (Williams Waltrip , 2006 ,

. 17 . As a result they are able make quick decisions and act appropriately on seeing individuals or their colleagues violating the laid down guidelines Japanese aviation industry , in conjunction with the government leaves nothing to chance even such a small measure is seen to increase passenger , crew , and aviation facilities from attacks . As a result , it can successfully be argued that Japanese have so far been successful in their measures , and that other countries have some lessons to learn

Japanese aviation industry has been on the forefront of improving security worldwide . Though ICAO , Japanese have been associating with industries in other countries . This has for instance resulted to the increased use of electronic ticketing (e-ticketing ) as a way of easing industrial process . E-ticketing is increasingly being used by governments to understand whether individuals termed as threat to safety in the industry are planning to disguise as passengers as cover-up to their terror activities . The industry also plays an important role of advising the government of Japan on the most efficient scanning process that is , those that will not affect smooth flow of passenger traffic in airport facilities (Williams Waltrip , 2006 ,

. 91 . The resulting efficiency has been copied by other countries - this makes Japanese industry the world 's trendsetter

Japanese airports have two screening processes , one for citizens and the other for foreigners (Williams Waltrip , 2006 ,

. 217 . The one for foreigners is vigorous compared the one that Japanese go through However , all the processes are similar . According to Japanese authorities , the division is occasioned by fact that the computerization of process uses personal data that happens to be saved by authorities It therefore makes in possible for authorities to process Japanese nationals whose data is already saved the computerized scanning also speeds up foreigners ' scanning processes . Fact that both groups end up being screed in decent speeds compared to scanning in other countries has helped shield Japanese authorities from the blame of discriminating against the separated scanning processes

The stringent screening of foreigners and their baggage is deeply rooted in Japanese tight immigration laws that have characterized the nation policies for decades (Japan Today , 2006 . The screening and tight immigration laws have made some individuals consider the Japanese society less trustful of foreigners , especially those coming from the less endowed countries in the region (Whitelegg , 2003 ,

. 171 . It is however important to consider that airport scenario and trust fro foreigners are not connected at all . The former is purely meant to increase efficiency in scanning processes . This would however be a hard point for Japanese authorities to convince international travelers arriving or traveling thorough the county 's various airports

Travelers ' picture and fingerprints are taken and passport information electronically recorded (ICAO , 2005 ,

. 9 . Doing this for the first time enables authorities to save all the data , which will be used in subsequent journeys . Passengers ' information is saved by authorizes takes less time to be scanned , because the just taken facial photo and fingerprints are compared with the ones in government databases International travelers arriving or departing from Japan on air should therefore be aware of the technological scanning they would go though as opposed to the scanning done in other countries . Despite the success in scanning technologies in solving airport bottlenecks , many foreigners wary of leaving private data in the custody of foreign governments

Japanese nationals have the advantage of submitting some of their private information to the authorities before embarking on their travels . Some of the information sent to authorities include : passport fingerprints and ticketing data (Japan Today , 2006 . This eases the process of scanning nationals on their way to departure gates all that is scanned is their baggage and the countersinking information in the database with those provided before and during departure - this has proven to be an efficient process that has served travelers and security authorities well . This smooth scanning process in Japanese airports has lead to a situation where Japanese facilities are less crowded compared to those in other developed nations

As opposed to travelers in the United States who do not have to keep their boarding passes after embarking planes , those in Japan have to hold on their receipts , which authorities could ask to see during arrival . This is an extra layer of security that is not left for a chance by Japanese authorities . Reason for this could be buried in the Japanese culture of being strict on measures and countermeasures in search for efficiency (Whitelegg , 2003 ,

. 120 . International travelers through the country must therefore be aware of Japanese focus on ensuring that the set procedures have been followed to the later . There exists no punishment for the loss or lack of boarding passes . However failure to present one 's baggage receipt upon arrival could jeopardize the speed or abilities of collecting luggage

Other than the internal measures taken to screen passengers and luggage , Japanese authorities also take into accounts needs expressed by other countries . For instance , the request by the United States government for all US bound flights to be screened without shoes is well respected by Japanese authorities . Japanese authorities do all their best to meet the needs of their international counterparts with greater hopes of having the country 's swishes being respected . Most of these agreements are drafted under the watchful eye of CIAO , which ensures that all the stakeholders in the industry are listened and their needs attended to adequately . CIAO further ensures that passenger liberties are not abused in the process of scanning collaboration (ICAO , 2005 ,

br 1

The No-fly List

Japanese does not have an existing no-fly list that is widely used in Canada and the United States . Authorities in the country are keen to ensure that people under investigation for criminal or terrorist activities are monitored at all times (ICAO , 2008 . The lack of list does not therefore mean that authorities do not track potential threat agents . Authorities do not solely base their investigations on terrorist activities , but on criminal acts . It is not clear whether Japanese government has access to no-fly lists maintained by other developed countries . Owing to the high level of cooperation between governments in what they call war on terrorist-related activities , it can successfully be argued that Japanese authorities also help foreign authorities in tracking individuals on no no-fly lists . The use of other countries lists could help Japanese understand terrorist or criminal histories of some travelers using the country 's facilities . This is greatly enhanced by the increased use of e-ticketing . Using e-ticketing data , Japanese authorities are able to establish in advance on the potentiality of terrorists coming into the country and take the necessary preventative measures . The passage of the same information to confidant countries increases awareness of potential threats and thus contributes in the development of threat control measures

Despite the lack of lists compiled by Japanese authorities , it is possible to see the government keeping track of people suspected on terrorist activities in other countries worldwide . In the first place Japanese authorities would out rightly refuse visas to such individuals In case those people happen to be Japanese citizens it is most likely that their travel activities to be monitored by the authorities in the country . Sharing of information with other countries enables the authorities to get a list of potential threat agents , which is acted upon immediate , and thus help avert dangers that could otherwise befall the industry (ICAO , 2005 ,

. 20 . In addition , Japanese authorities would also follow closely on Japanese individuals that could serve as accomplices to terrorist threats based outside the country . This would mean restriction of their travel plans as well as being followed by authorities without their knowledge . Successful control of individual with terrorist activities is hoped to shield the industry from terrorist harms . The greater use of technology in maintaining databases for such people helps in tracking the contacts with terrorist groups in other part of the world . One can successfully claim that Japanese authorities have been successful in this field

Carry-on Luggage

All luggages , including carry-on , are scanned several times before passengers get to the relevant boarding gate (Narita Airport , 2007 Consumer electronics receive extra scanning from authorities . This trend of scanning consumer electronics existed long before terrorists were reported to have planned blowing trans-Atlantic airlines with explosives . Lotions and liquids kept in carry-on baggage also receive extra inspection . They should actually not be of sizes extra than regulatory specifications . Both of these extra scanning are hardly new to international travelers they have become a common place in most major airports . In fact many governments require that passengers to have undergone such tests . Not many Japanese as well as international travelers are so happy regarding the extra inspection of their baggage especially the carry-on . These actions are seen as gross interference of personal privacy and liberty . Being told to take-out all the particulars in ones baggage is not something that too many people will be proud of or take for granted

Travelers have however grown to be accustomed with the new regulations Airport authorities , too , have been relaxing on the goods that could be taken on board . Experiences that both the authorities and passenger have gone through during implementation have resulted to the establishment of lists stipulating what can be carried on board (Kansai Airport , 2007 Airlines have also contributed by putting the lists of items that passengers could carry on board , and sort of scanning they will be subjected-to in the airport . As a result , passengers come prepared it becomes possible for passengers to come prepared . As a result passengers can avoid carrying items that would end up being taken by authorities . It should further be noted that tags placed on carry-on luggage should as be marinated throughout passengers ' journey . On the overall , the carry on scanning and the accompanying regulations are more stringent that in other countries , something that travelers have to take into consideration when traveling into or through Japan

Screening Technologies

The Japanese air transport industry uses several technologies in its baggage scanning processes . X-ray scanning is among the widely used technologies in the industry (Yoshiaki et al , 2006 ,

. 23P . This is actually widely used technology in Japanese airports , reason being its accuracy in detecting items in the baggage . The cost for its purchase and installation is cheaper compared to the more sophisticated machinery . Because the technology has been in place for long compared to other technologies , more people have been exposed and can therefore utilize it with ease . Many other airports in the world use X-ray technology to scan luggage . The technology has earned its place in the aviation industry and can therefore be trusted to deliver the desired results

Another technology that is quickly gaining currency in Japanese air transport industry is the integrated circuit contact-less microchips (PC World , 2005 ) that is integrated in biometric frameworks . This technology helps in reducing the amount of human labor that goes into scanning processes . The goals is to therefore computerize all the processes and leave human labor with the task of ensuring that all worked well , as well as attending to passengers whose baggage gets detected by the system . As a resulted of reduced human labor , it becomes possible for airports to increase the speed while attending to travelers . This technology is among the factors that are increasing Japanese competitiveness in the global aviation industry

As motioned earlier , Japanese airport authorities happen to have access to citizens ' data . The ability to access data before Japanese travelers arrive at the airport for their departure enables authorities to prepare for the screening , by electronically pulling the data of passengers traveling on specific day 's an time periods . On arrival to the screening area , Japanese travelers just have to present their passports and have their picture verified with those in national databases . This means that Japanese do not have wait for hours for screening as their western counterparts do . As a result , Japanese airport experiences become more pleasant that most of other global airports , which should learn from Japanese practices

Just like other governments in the world , Japanese authorities make use of the data collected from e-ticketing . This information is used to determine the possibility of having terrorism-sympathetic individuals from being a threat to fellow passengers and crew members (PC World 2005 . On getting these data , Japanese authorities take the initiative of informing relevant airlines , which end up dropping the said passenger from flight . Diplomatic ties between Japan and other country could also be used in passing information on dangerous individuals that could be using Japanese-registered airliners . This measure helps greatly in reducing threats directed to Japanese airlines , their crew and passengers

All the data collected from incoming and outgoing passengers is saved in databases that authorities could use in the future . Saving this information makes the authorities understand travel patterns of people suspected of terrorist activities . This would help authorities to track and investigate the possibility of suspects having accomplices in the country . Collaboration with other governments also makes it possible to understand whether there are accomplices based in other countries However , not many individuals are happy with their data being saved by the authorities in fear that privacy could be compromised in one way or another this has done little to deter Japanese authorities in their quest to maintain one of the world 's best protected airline industries

Passengers in Japan would be forgiven to think that the scanning takes only once or twice . Indeed , the scanning of passenger and luggage takes place in several occasions . First , the carry-on and passage are scanned before getting on the ticketing counter . The second scanning takes place when as passengers enter the immigration section . The third scanning takes place at the gate , as passengers board their relevant flights This third scanning is meant to authenticate that all the documents facial and fingerprint information indeed correct and belong to the traveling passengers . After all these checks and counterchecks passengers are left with no doubt that authorities are indeed concerned with safety (Narita Airport , 2007

Despite the many scanning and procedures that take place in Japanese airports , it has been possible for authorities to speed-up the time taken by passengers to pass through airport facilities (Narita Airport 2007 . This is a unique feature considering that other busy airports in the world have fewer scanning processes , but passengers take longer to go through facility . It is actually common to see passengers in some western capital reporting to the airports several hours before their scheduled departure . All this success has been cultivated through aggressive use of technology in Japan . Authorities in other global airports should consider taking lessons for Japanese processes . Only then can airport and flight experiences can be improved from the nightmares they have come to be

Security Personnel

The increased use of information technology in Japanese airports is reducing the need for higher number of security personnel witnessed many western airports (Gajilan , 2005 . Most of airport manpower goes behind-the-scenes , that is in operating the technology used in scanning passengers and their baggage . However , there exists a number of security personnel manning the equipment and attending to passenger that need assistance or have to be screened further . Security needs are also addressed though close circuit television systems . Japanese movement towards e-airport (where most operations in airport facilities are remotely controlled ) is leading to the reduction of personnel in contact with passengers and their baggage . The e-airport is providing passengers with all the information regarding processes to be undertaken in screening processes . Passengers are also provided with tutorials regarding how to perform slam tasks during screening . When this happens the need for passengers to require help with scanning processes is rapidly diminished

The increased use of technology in the scanning process is however a mixed blessed for passengers . This is because airport security personnel seem to be little rough when it comes to attending to passengers who need more screening or whose luggage has been detected to contain items that are not allowed in flight . Security personnel thus interpret scanning machine as understand that the machine could misinterpret contents too . On passengers ' side , the lack of personal touch in most of the screening process as it happens in many other airports in the world could become a haunting experience . This especially happens to passengers using the system for their first time , and when the system itself is performing inaugural service . However , these drawbacks on airport officials are minimal compared to advantages that come with use of the system

On Deck Officers and Air Marshals

Japanese aviation industry does not have individuals who play the role of air marshals or armed deck officer . Despite lack such programs , Japan does not armed employees of foreign airlines from operating in the country . Japanese authorities enter into agreements with those companies and their gove4rnments . This helps in legalizing the use of arms in Japanese bound flights , those departing from the country , and the ones using Japanese airspace . American companies are among the ones allowed to carry firearms by Japanese authorities . Japan 's air transport industry is thus open to allowing operational procedures from other countries to be applied on Japanese airspace . This is a good precedence in the worldwide industry , because working closely together , and allowing other airliners to apply home country procedures in other countries , will go far way into protecting passengers , and facilities from threats

Despite the open-ended policy on in flight guns , Japanese authorities provide guidelines to be followed (Airport Technology , 2007 .Officers of foreign airlines should feel obliged to follow these procedures because they are developed to be inline with regulations in other countries . It is therefore up to individual companies to ensure that their employees understand what is expected of them , failure of which stern actions should be taken . The Air Marshal authorities should therefore ensure that deck officers adhere to the laid down rules and procedures

Rather than requiring the use of firearms in the flights , Japan has embarked on fostering greater cooperation with industry players in the attempt of developing procedures that would serve all that stakeholders in the most efficient and painless manner possible . Japanese airlines have therefore been provided with a free hand in matters pertaining to the way they want to protect passengers and crew . It is claimable that these companies have not been disappointing in developing descent measures . On their part , the authorities have concentrated improving preventative measures in airport facilities . As a result of the division of labor that accrues from this practice , authorities have been bale to concentrate on developing mechanism that have been so successful in increasing efficiency in Japanese airports . Airlines have on their part succeeded in guaranteeing passenger safety

To ensure that Japanese companies have been adhering to the agreed security procedures , Japanese authorities perform tests on deck attendants ' preparations to deal with threats that could come their way (Rabalais , 2005 ,

. 169 . As a result , airlines train their airmen in the best ways possible . Airline companies are also more likely to cooperate in the training modules , because the success of the industry would help retain its title as among the world 's most prepared to deal with terror threats . Fact that deck attendants could transfer from one Japanese airline to another makes it advisable for the companies to combine their training , or ensure high standards certification

As a result of the aforementioned procedures , Japan has become a real trendsetter when it comes to passenger screening and development of systems that help protect flights against terrorist threats (Whitelegg 2003 ,

. 247 . Should Japan continue with the current trend , then its industry is destined to maintain its position as one of the most terrorist prepared air transport industries . It shall also continue to serve as best example to other insures worldwide . In addition , the collaboration between regulatory authorities and airline players will remain to be a great admiration to other industries . There is no reason why the Japanese industry should not continue with the trend

International Recognition

Japan has been using its expertise in airport screening to help other countries , especially developing ones , to enhance they aviation industries . This is being done through bilateral agreements , where authorities in Japan deal directly with authorities in other countries (Japan Government , 2006 . Japan is also using ICAO to help other members strengthen their systems . The third route is through Japanese companies that have been getting tenders to improve their aviations standards . On their part , Japanese airlines have an upper hand in influencing authorities on countries they serve to improve their passenger screening procedures . This will in the long run prove to be the greatest contribution to the global aviation industry . It is important that Japan continues to help other countries to follow into its footsteps , because aviation safety affects all industries in unison . Indeed it can be remembered that the use of just four aircrafts in the September 2001 bombing had a drastic effect on the global aviation industry . Aviation industries worldwide should therefore increase collaboration in to avoid the repeat of what they have gone through in the last few years In addition the increased integration of airline services through code sharing end up exposing airlines well protected from threats

Japanese industry has also been at the forefront of urging stakeholders to adhere to ICAO standards (ICAO , 2005 ,

. 16 . Holding to ICAO standard would mean that industries in all countries of the world have similar mechanisms of measuring abilities to withstand terror threats When that happens it shall be possible for players to detect slight deviation from the normal trend , and thus implement the desired changes It shall also be possible for regulators to compare performance of their local industry in comparison with the international trend

This report has reported Japan as having one of the most efficient and fast airport clearance processes that translate to flight safety against terror threats . Japan 's performance has been compared with other air transport industries in the world , especially those in develop nations Results of those comparisons have indicated that Japan 's efficiency which has translated to competitiveness , originates from the greater use of information technology in clearance processes . It has been established that the use of information technology in airport clearance processes in Japan has resulted to the increase in the speed by which passengers are served . Owing to these benefits , the countries should quickly adopt the use of technology in their screening processes . On its part , Japan has been helping other countries , especially developing ones to improve aviation standards . This has been done through bilateral agreements and ICAO . Results for both routes have been impressive , and will go a far way into improving aviation not only in the developing countries but the entire world

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