The Incas and how their ideals were fueled by religious convictions.

INCAS

The Inca Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America . The administrative , political and military center of the empire was located in Cuzco . The Inca Empire arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in early 13th century . From 1438 to 1533 , the Incas used a variety of methods , from conquest to peaceful assimilation , to incorporate a large portion of western South America , centered on the Andean mountain ranges , including large parts of modern Ecuador , Peru , western and south central Bolivia , northwest Argentina , and north and north-central Chile The Incas identified

themselves as "children of the sun

War spread the religion of Inca . They settled in a small village they called Cuzco ' in 1250 . From thereon , they went on a conquering spree By 1500 , the Inca Empire consisted of 5 million subjects and 4400 kilometers of territory . As the empire grew , it conquered the Gods of the conquered into its pantheon

Once conquered , the states were allowed to worship their own local deity . However , one requirement of the Inca overlords was that states support the cult of the Inca Sun God as the religion of the empire Also , they transported the images of the local Gods to their sun temple in Cuzco

The Inca religion was easily capable of incorporating the religious features of most subjugated regions . The setting for beliefs , idols and oracles , more or less throughout the entire empire , had been preordained over the previous two thousand years : a general recognition of certain creator deities and a whole pantheon of nature-related spirits , minor deities and demons . The customary form of worship varied a little according to the locality , but everywhere they went the Incas (and later the Spanish ) found the creator god among other animistic spirits and concepts of power related to lightning , thunder and rainbows . The Incas merely superimposed their variety of mystical , yet inherently practical elements onto those that they came across

Religious observances - of the official state religion- united the different ethnic and language groups . The priests of the Sun were largely responsible for spreading the language and principles and ideals of the Incas among the newly conquered places . The local households called ayllu worshipped both the Sun god as well as their local spirits .The Incas worshipped the dead , ancestors , founding culture heroes , their king whom they regarded as divine , nature and its cycles . The worship of nature and its cycles suggest that for them time and space were sacred and consequently the calendar was religious and each month had its own festival . The most important cult was directed to Inti the god sun who nourished the earth and man with his rays . The most important feast was the one dedicated to Inti , called IntipRaimi . This rich ceremony , with its splendid costumes , and gold and silver offerings and decoration , was opened by the Inca emperor , his family and the curaca . After the opening the emperor made a libation to the sun and drank chicha (a maize drink with his family , then led a procession , followed by every one into the sun temple , where the imperial family made offerings of precious vessels or images to the god . Following this , omens were read and llamas were sacrificed . The ceremony ended with eating and drinking

The Incas believed in the notion of polarity that was expressed by the words hanan and hurin . Hanan expressed the high , superior right masculine , and hurin expressed the low , inferior , left , feminine . This polarity was evident in the cult to the moon (Quilla , considered as female and the sister and wife of the sun considered a male entity

They conceived the world as composed of three aspects . In their representation of the cosmos , for example they used the three words : UKU PACHA (the past and the interior world , KAY PACHA (the world of present and of here , and HANAN PACHA (the future and the supra world . These worlds are represented as concentric circles . Each of these worlds is inhabited by spiritual beings . Once future , present and past are not conceived as a linear structure , human beings can access the three dimensions

After the expansion of the Inca Empire , royal ancestor worship was established and increased dramatically . When one Inca ruler died , the new ruler would not only inherit the wealth of the office , but also the office itself

They believed that after death , the two souls which inhabit each person would take different ways . One would return to its place of origin - that actually depended upon the virtues of the dead , on the kind of death one had , as well as on the dead person 's social and economical condition . The other soul remained in the body which was preserved intact and mummified . It is most probably this belief that led the Incas to bury personal belongings with the dead

Their burial customs reflected the belief in life after death . The bodies of wealthy , both men and women , were wrapped in fine tapestry The men would have beside them in the grave , the implements they used in war , fishing and hunting . Also , sometimes the finest pottery vessels or other objects of gold or silver would go alongside the body . There would also be a supply of food , coca leaves and other items required in day-to-day life . These were left for the body to be used in its journey to the next world

The poor man was thrust into a hole in the sand of the coast , or into the crevasse between the rocks in the mountains . Beside him would be an ear of corns , pottery vessel for water and some odd shaped stones like amulets

The Incas of the coast regions called their deceased bodies as mummies The mummies of Inca rulers are treated as if they are still alive Servants would still tend to the estate of the deceased and on important ceremonies mummies would be brought out to celebrate with everybody else . On important issues , some even consulted the mummies before any action was taken

The official state religion consisted of not only the royal mummy cults but also Inti , the Sun God . Inti was one of the most famous of the three manifestations of the sky God , who stood in the upper pantheon of Inca religion . The first manifestation of the Sky God was Viracocha , the creator . The Viracocha was thought to have a human form . He lived in the sky and commanded a lot of supernatural beings who looked after the welfare of human beings . This is an example of a Prayer to Virococha

O Creator without equal , you are at the ends of the world , you gave life and valor to mankind , saying Let there be man ' and for the women , Let there be women You made them , formed them and gave them life so that they will life safe and sound in peace without danger Where are you ? Do you live high up in the sky or down below the earth or in the clouds and storms ? Hear me , respond to me and consent to my plea giving us perpetual life and taking us with your hand , and receive this offering wherever you are , O Creator

The second manifestation of the Sky God was that of Illapa , the God of thunder and weather . This God was extremely important for agriculture as He regulated the rainfall

The third manifestation was Inti , Sun God who was also responsible for the Inca royal lineage . He got the greatest importance and he was the center of all rituals

An additional deity was Quilla the Goddess of the moon . Quilla was the wife of Inti and was responsible for women 's menstrual cycles and agricultural cycles . When eclipses occurred , this was believed to be the work of puma or snake that tore Quilla apart . Hence , dogs were made to bark and howl . Women formed the membership of the cult of the moon

Yakumama (Mother of Water ) was believed to control subterranean and mountain streams , blessing the fields with nourishment and springing fresh water from the earth . The complement of Chiqui Illapa , she was associated with ukupacha , the lower kingdom of heaven

A regional deity , Mamacocha (Mother of Sea ) was important to ayllus of the Peruvian coast , where she maintained the fertility of of the sea She was honored with conch shells , which were more valuable in this region than gold or silver

Pachakama (Mother of Earth ) was also a regional deity , important to the Andean highlanders . She was ascribed the role of ensuring the fertility of soil and seed in the harsh mountain climes

In the tradition of celestial deities , stars were thought to possess spirits that breathed life into earthly beings . Several constellations were also recognized as bearing agricultural import , such as the Pleiades , the "Seven Sisters " who preserved the seed , and the "Great Lizard , who appeared in the west during planting season and buried his head in the east at harvest time

Waca were the family gods , or , synonymously , the shrines in which the family gods were worshipped . They were honored with more regularity than any deity of the state-recognized pantheon , as they wielded direct control over the prosperity of the ayllu . Wacas took a variety of forms , the most common being mountains , streams , caves , trees , or roads Idols appropriate to their form were worshipped on a daily basis to appease them and avert the evocation of malevolence . Curiously oddities such as twins , abnormal plants , and disfigured animals were also considered Wacas . In addition to the Waca of the kin group individuals also had a personal guarding spirit of similar significance

If religion was important in the life of Inca , it was the religious rituals that held the highest importance in religious venerations . The ritual performance centered on the supernatural growth of animals and crops and the health and well-being of the people

They practiced daily offering and sacrifices . However , human and animal sacrifices were held only on special occasions such as the enthronement of the Inca (the king , when 200 children would be killed , or in times of crises such as famine , or epidemics . Such critical situations were actually considered , most of the time , a result of disobedience to the Taboos and would therefore call for confession of sins . By confessing they would prevent or allay private and public disasters . At the beginning these confessions were done in public , becoming secret after some time

There are four types of rituals that depict the ideals of the Incas . The first type was curative . Incas believed in spirits- good and evil . They prayed to the good spirits for their health and well-being during life and in the life after death . The evil spirits were countered by sorcery They followed the rituals performed by priests or private ceremonies by sorcerers to wade off the effects of the evil spirits

The second type was divination . The priests were expected to make divinations and interpret oracles . Another part of Inca religious life was divination . Everything , from illness , to the investigation of crimes , or the definition of what sacrifices should be made to what gods , was all done by consulting the oracles , observing in a dish the meandering of a spider , or the disposition of coca leaves , by drinking ayahuasca (an hallucinogen , or even by examining the markings on the lungs of a sacrificed llama

The third type was penitential . Penitential sins were required of a number of sins , such as failing to offer the correct sacrifices , not observing the obligatory fasts , resuming marital relationships with women who have been shunned as unfaithful , committing murder (worst sin and committing adultery . There were two types of rituals . The first was the animal sacrifice which was by far the most common . The second type was human sacrifice . This was infrequent and uncommon compared to other empires . But nevertheless , it did occur . Humans were strangled and their throats were slit or their hearts were cut

The fourth type was festive . This was the most important and popular among the Incan practices . Public and solemn , they were celebrated at the advent of public crises , such as earthquakes , epidemics , droughts or wars . They were also celebrated at times of the Coronation of the Inca rulers

They celebrated three important ceremonies during a year . They are Capac-Raymi , Inti-Raymi and Coya-Raymi . Most religious festivals were based on calendars and on the agricultural cycles and marked by processions , sacrifices and dances . The Incas were aware of lunar time and the solar year , although they generally used the blooming of a special cactus to gauge the correct time to begin planting . Sacrifices to the gods normally consisted of llamas , cuys or chicha - only occasionally were chosen women and other adults killed . Once every year however , young children were apparently sacrificed in the most important sacred centers

Capac-Raymi celebrated in December , the first month of the year , was when the Incan boys were initiated and knighted . This was the puberty ritual of adolescents aged between twelve and fifteen years of age where they received their final names

The second was that of Inti-Raymi , celebrated in June . This was the principal festival of Inti , the Sun God . In this festival , one hundred llamas will be sacrificed with the aid of the ruling king , who is believed to be the descendent of Inti

Finally , the festival of Coya- Raymi was celebrated in September Because September was the beginning of rainy season , it is believed to bring with it hardship and disease . This was a supplication to Virococha to protect against sickness and disease throughout the empire

Another ritual common to throughout the region is Pukllay Festival . This is a celebration of fertility , procreation and new life . Again , in this ritual offerings are made to Mother Earth and other mountain deities and respect for ancestors is central . An important element of this and most other rituals is coca leaves , which are sacred to the Incas . Coca leaves were chewed during ceremonies and they were believed to possess many important qualities , including acting as mediators , between people and Gods . Ironically , coca leaves are nowadays used to prepare narcotics and is banned in many countries

The Incas were a very hierarchical society , and although the Inca (the king ) was the son of the sun , his religious power was divided with hullac umac (the high priest , chosen from a noble lineage ) to whom the priests of all shrines were submitted . The priests made sacrifices prayed on behalf of the believers , listened to people 's confession , and where responsible for divination . They often lived in the temple that also housed the priestesses -chosen women that would remain chaste unless they were chosen as a concubine or a wife of someone of the imperial families . They were also in charge of the preparation of chicha , and the woven of the textile used in the cults

Women 's centrality in the production of textiles , chichi and food was part of the Incan way of life . The most powerful women in Inca were Coya , the wife of the ruling Incan king , who was often his full sister The political reason for brother-sister marriage was more mundane . This was a strategy for preserving the divinity of the royal line and limiting the pool of heirs . The Inca had only one coya , unless the first bore no children or only daughters . In this situation , a second or third sister would be married as co-coya . The Inca 's daughters were also married to cement alliances

Another custom is the dispatching of wives when their husbands die . This ritual goes to show the belief held by Incas with respect to women . They did not tolerate adultery in any form . They respected married women but after the death of a man , his wife was considered to be worthless and as good as dead

The Incas believed that gold was the sweat of the sun . Gold was only valued when it was used to create ceremonial objects , such as containers and jewelry , or when it was used to adorn tombs and temples . Much of the gold of the Incas was taken and melted down when Pizarro invaded the Inca Empire

The Incas believed in previous creations and destructions of the universe . However , the division of cosmological time into major epochs of creation was not a central concern of Incan religion . Instead , the Incas emphasized the arrangement of space into a sacred geography . A crucial aspect of this sacred geography was the concept of huaca . This term referred to any person , place , or thing with supernatural power almost anything unusual was considered a huaca . Examples ranged from prominent features of the landscape (mountain peaks , stone outcroppings and springs ) to oddly shaped or colored pebbles and plants . There were countless huacas in the Incan world , and major ones defined the organization of sacred space

Cusco , the Incas ' capital , was the center of their universe . More than 300 of the most important huacas in the area around Cusco were conceived of as lying along 41 lines called ceques . These lines radiated outward from the Coricancha , the principal temple of Incan state religion , and extended to the horizon or beyond . Like the Mayas and Aztecs , the Incas also saw the earth as being composed of four quarters , whose dividing lines intersected in Cusco . The ceques subdivided the four quarters Each ceque belonged to one of the quarters , and the care of each huaca on each ceque was assigned to a particular group of people . In this way the ceques helped to coordinate social relations among people , as well as to organize sacred space

Above the earth were the heavens , while the underworld lay below Neither the heavens nor the underworld seems to have had the elaborate vertical layering common in Mesoamerican conceptions , but the heavens had a complex geography . Like the earth , the heavens were divided into four quarters , separated by a giant cross formed by the Milky Way as it passed through its zenith . The movement of astronomical bodies through the four quadrants determined the Incan agricultural and ceremonial calendars , and the ceques also served as sight lines for astronomical observations

In the centuries following the Spanish conquests of Mexico and Peru most Native Americans were at least nominally converted to Catholicism . The blending of native and Catholic beliefs was a complicated process , and it followed different courses in different areas . In general , the Aztecs made Catholicism the core of a new religion that also incorporated native beliefs , while the Mayas retained native beliefs as the core of their religion and added Catholic elements . The Incan case , perhaps the most complicated of the three , represented an intricate blending of native and Catholic beliefs , aided by certain parallels between the two In essence , the Spanish conquest of 1519-1521 destroyed the core of Aztec religion - the cult of warfare and human sacrifice . The Incas like the Aztecs , had a central imperial cult : the worship of the royal mummies . However , the Incan imperial cult , like the Mesoamerican worship of agricultural deities , was an expression of the ancient and widespread religious tradition of ancestor worship . The Spanish destroyed the royal Incan mummies and their cult , but not the underlying tradition of ancestor worship . During the 16th and 17th centuries , Incan and Catholic beliefs were blended , revealing parallels between the two traditions For example , both the Incas and their Spanish conquerors made special commemoration of the dead during the month of November and had penitential rites that involved confessing sins to priests . In recent decades evangelical Protestantism , especially in the form of Pentecostalism , has been spreading rapidly among Latin American Indians At the same time , community-based social action movements are a growing force within Latin American Catholicism . Whether these are short- or long-term trends , and what effects they will have on native religious traditions , are unresolved questions

References

www2 .truman .edu

The Incas by Nigel Davies

Women in Ancient America by Karen Olsen Bruhns and Karen E Stothert

http /coe .fgcu .edu /students /webb /meso /incarel .htm

http /www .mnsu .edu /emuseum /prehistory /latinamerica /south /cultures /inca html

http /lsa .colorado .edu lsa /texts /Incas .html

Inca Religions and Customs , Book by Bernabe Cobo 1990

A Brief History of Peru Book by Christine Hunefeldt 2004

The Incas Book by Terence N . D`Altroy 2002

Daily Life In The Inca Empire Book by Micheal Andrew Malpass 1996 ...