Environmental Science and policy

Running head : Environmental Science and Policy

Environmental Science and Policy

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Environmental Science and Policy

Introduction

The occurrence of rapid economic and political changes could be traced from the post-era of industrial revolution . These changes have brought impact to the environment wherein emerging industrial progress and remarkable growth of population has acquired significant economic resourcing relating to the utilization of the ecosystem . On the other hand , the accompanying trends in the advancement of science and technologies

have conquered the law of natural sciences

The expansion of factories , development of industrial machineries and increasing numbers of vehicles has brought in the looming effect of air pollution and other pollutants . Likewise , the exploitative and inefficient utilization of environment depletes the natural habitation of flora and fauna , from which the ecosystem becomes fragile and the forces of Mother Nature asymmetrically collide

Today , Global Warming is a potential catastrophe that threatens the earth and all its inhabitants . Such a situation depicts the poem of the Founder of Evolutionary Economics , Kenneth Ewart Boulding 's (1910-1993 as cited

"The world is finite , resources are scarce , Things are bad and will be worse , Coal is burned and gas exploded , Forests out and soil eroded Wells are dry and air polluted , Dust is blowing , trees are uprooted , Oil is going , ores depleted , Drains receive what is excreted , Land is sinking , seas are rising , Man is far too enterprising , Fires will rage with man to fan it , Soon we will have a plundered planet (Boulding ,1993 in Edugreen Poems , 2008

The health hazard and death toll related to air pollution is extremely alarming specifically in most highly populated and highly industrialized countries . Thus , the issue on air pollution is recognized as a critical sociological , economic and geological problem that is tried to be sensibly addressed by people and governments worldwide

This will objectively examine the extent and scope of various governmental and non-governmental responses on environmental science and policy issues relating to the evolution of the United States ' Clean Air Act , and the effects or impacts of its subsequent amendments towards achieving national and global importance in enacting policies to mitigate air pollution and towards the protection and preservation of the global environment

Methodology

This adopts a three-prong method of study , such as (1 ) a review of literature relating to the Clean Air Act (2 ) discussion of policy issues affecting its implementation , and (3 ) situational analysis to evaluate the national impact

What is Clean Air Act

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA , the Clean Air Act (CAA ) has been amended in 1970 as an ambitious national campaign to maintain healthy and quality air by controlling air pollution

With the 1970 amendment to CAA , many US-based industries criticized the CAA 's implementation due expensive compliance . To cite , the American businesses in a number of ways are forced to control air pollution through end-of-pipe methods that confine pollution and implement preventative measures that limit the quantity of pollutants , in which the cost of compliance with Clean Air Act regulations can be expensive (US-EPA , 2008

However , the Clean Air Act has been enacted to basically reduce air pollution . Based on the report of Business Week Magazine (2008 , CAA implementation contributes to the decrease of significant amounts of air pollutants in the US at about 30 from the period of 1970 to 1995 , in spite of the US ' population growth of 28 of that period

Literature Review

Brief historical background

The problems on air pollution have long been an issue way back from the time of King Edward I of England in 1306 (American Meteorological Society , 1999 . As further cited from the American Meteorological Society (1999 , King Edward issued a proclamation banning the use of sea coal in London due to the smoke it caused . On the succeeding centuries Great Britain continuously pursued the anti-pollution campaign on its first trial to air pollution controlling in Chicago and Cincinnati during its US occupation , in which it legislated the Clean Air Policy of 1881

After the British-American war , the Clean Air Policy of 1881 was adopted by the US and enforced by its federal government agencies , specifically the Bureau of Mines of the Department of the Interior which established the Office of Air Pollution . In the 1940 's , the tragedy caused by a deadly smog ' in Los Angeles and Donora , Pennsylvania elevated the alarm of the residents of affected areas which called the US Congress to pass the `Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 , which was the first clean air and air quality control acts ' that is still in effect and being continuously revised and amended (American Meteorological Society 1999

Historical amendments to the Clean Air Act as a state policy

A timeline on the amendments to the Clean Air Act is herein cited from the electronic journal of the American Meteorological Society (1999 ) in to fully discuss the historical and chronological basis of its evolution as a state policy , as follows

In 1955 , the local governments ' problems on air pollution has triggered the federal government to address the issue at a national level in which Congress passed the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 as a result of the deadly smog tragedy ' in Donora , Pennsylvania that accounted the deaths of 20 people and hundreds of casualties from airborne diseases

In 1963 , Congress passed the nation 's Clean Air Act of 1963 to reduce air pollution by setting emission standards for stationary sources such as power plants and steel mills . It did not take into account mobile sources of air pollution which had become the largest source of many dangerous pollutants

In 1970 , the issue on inadequate laws in enacting the Clean Air Act of 1963 has been amended by the Clean Air Act of 1970 as a major modification which emphasized challenging principles , such as the establishment of primary and secondary principles ' for setting air quality , minimize emissions from factories and vehicles as to be enacted by the state and federal government , and increased funds for air pollution research and development . Congress did not amend the Clean Air Act during the 1980 's because of President Reagan 's prioritization of economic policies above environmental actions

In 1990 , the long phase of idleness of the federal government has realized the need to modify the Clean Air Act of 1970 . The amendment has enacted the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 that focuses on 5 key areas of implementation , such as (1 ) air-quality standards (2 ) motor vehicle emissions and alternative fuels (3 ) toxic air pollutants (4 ) acid rain , and (5 ) stratospheric ozone depletion . The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (as amended ) envisioned a recovery of gaps of regulatory policies and empowered the functions of government agencies ' and the implementations of their policies

Enactment of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990

How has the Act [as amended] balanced the regional character of air quality issues with the national importance of air pollution as a whole This question could be well described by the implementation of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (PPA90 . The US Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA ) was mandated to spearhead the implementation of PPA90 . The function of the US-EPA and its Administrator has been outlined in the PPA90 provision as amended on December 31st 2002 (PL 107-377 , to cite , the Administrator [and the Agency '] shall develop and implement a strategy to promote source reduction (Sec 6604-a ,

.180 in US Senate , 2002

Under the succeeding provisions , the key strategies of US-EPA were identified , cited as follows (1 ) establish standard methods of measurement of source reduction (2 ) ensure that the Agency considers the effect of its existing and proposed programs on source reduction efforts and review regulations prior and subsequent to determine their effect on source reduction (3 ) coordinate source reduction activities to promote source reduction practices in other Federal agencies , develop generic research and development on techniques and processes which have broad applicability (4 ) develop improved methods of coordinating streamlining and assuring public access to data collected under Federal environmental statutes (5 ) facilitate the adoption of source reduction techniques by businesses through exchange of information on capabilities (6 ) identify measurable goals (8 ) establish an advisory panel of technical experts comprised of representatives from industry the States , and public interest groups to improve collection and dissemination of data (9 ) establish a training program on source reduction opportunities (10 ) identify and recommend to Congress to eliminate barriers to source reduction including the use of incentives and disincentives (11 ) identify opportunities to use Federal procurement to encourage source reduction (12 ) develop , test and disseminate model source reduction , and auditing procedures to highlight source reduction opportunities and (13 ) establish an annual award program to recognize a company or companies which operate outstanding or innovative source reduction programs (Sec . 6604-b , 1-13 ,

.180-181 in US Senate , 2002

Policy Issues Affecting US-EPA Implementation

The key strategic component programs

In relation to the enactment of PPA90 , we may ask a question what has been the net effect of the PPA90 ? The significance of this question may point out to policy issues affecting the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA ) program implementation . The inquiry could be directed to discussing the incumbent activities or undertakings of the US-EPA through its key strategic component programs . One of the effects of enacting the PPA90 was the enactment of Executive 13423 on January 24th 2007 . To cite , the EO 13423 was executed by President George W . Bush to strengthen federal environmental , energy and transportation management (Federal Register , 2007

Under the EO 13423 is the policy that empowers the US-EPA in implementing the conduct of environmental , transportation , and energy-related activities under the law in support of their respective missions in an environmentally , economically and fiscally sound integrated , continuously improving , efficient , and sustainable manner (Sec .1 , EO 13423 in Federal Register , 2007 . In which the execution or implementation of this provision also refer to the function of a Presidential appointee or designated ' Federal Environmental Executive that will streamline and ensure efficient and effective implementation of the US-EPA 's program . As cited from the provision , the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive shall maintain the Environmental Protection Agency for funding and administrative purposes (Sec .6 : a-c EO 13423 in Federal Register , 2007

In effect of the EO 13423 , the US-EPA spearheads in implementing one of its key strategic programs on Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP , in which , to cite , committed to reducing environmental footprints or traces of waste materials by (1 ) increasing and promoting recycling reducing materials entering the Federal Agency 's waste stream (2 Promoting and achieving increased and preferential use of materials with recycled content and (3 ) Emphasizing and increasing the purchase and use of environmentally preferable products (US-EPA , 2007

To cite , the rationale of US-EPA-EPP program is based on its impact assessment on the federal purchasing , being the single largest consumer of goods and services within the United States that has spending estimated at 350 billion for goods and services . Moreover , as cited , US-EPA found that purchasing power exerts a tremendous influence on products and services in the national marketplace , of which the EPP program seek to ensure that federal government 's buying power is working to the greatest extent possible to increase availability of environmentally preferable products that shall minimize impact to the environment (US-EPA , 2007

By judicious implementation of the EPP program , the US-EPA envisions the benefits ' it would bring to the American people and a global contribution to reducing environmental risks . To cite , these benefits shall (1 ) Improved ability to meet environmental goals (2 ) Improved worker safety and health (3 ) Reduced liabilities (4 ) Reduced health and disposal costs (5 ) Increased availability of environmentally preferable products in the marketplace (US-EPA , 2007

With regard to addressing other issues particularly on environmental science , we may cite the initiative of the US Congress in establishing the Science Advisory Board (SAB ) in1978 as an incorporating framework of US-EPA , in which SAB has extensive mandate to complement US-EPA 's technical undertakings as follows (1 ) reviewing the quality and relevance of the scientific and technical information being used or proposed as the basis for regulations (2 ) reviewing research programs and the technical basis of applied programs (3 ) reviewing generic approaches to regulatory science that includes guidelines on the use of scientific and technical information in regulatory decisions and evaluating analytic methods of mathematical modeling (4 ) advising on expansive scientific findings on science , technology , social and economic issues , and (5 ) advising the on emergency and other short-notice programs (US-EPA , 2007

In sum , the US-EPA may be considered as a multi-dimensional regulatory agency patterned to the evolution of the Clean Air Act that gave birth to the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 . A brief review of US-EPA programs reveal its multipurpose and multifunctional role in environmental management , in which the subsequent amendments to the Clean Air Act from 1955 to 1970 traces the patterns of envisioning and creating an environmental manning agency similar to US-EPA . From this observation , it could be of best interest to further examine the magnitude of effects or impact of US-EPA as an executor of environmental science and policy

Situational Analysis Evaluating National Impact

This section of the will examine the effectiveness and performance of US-EPA program through discussions of relevant findings , to situate the analysis in evaluating the national impact

To analyze the situational factor of establishing US-EPA , we may again sum-up the evolution of Clean Air Act in retrospect on the mandate of EPA . Based on the historical process of amending the CAA , we may cite that environmental law and policy on air pollution control and preservation of good quality air was central to "end-of-pipe method and command and control ' regulation [wherein environmental protection is perceived in aspect of preventing pollution from the source] , in which the perception has shifted through the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 that emanated EPA 's mandate in Pollution prevention that has dual management approach in both protecting the environment and strengthening economic growth through more efficient manufacturing and raw material use (Pacific Environmental Services Inc 1993

In view of US-EPA 's program , Section 6605 of the PPA90 provides the technical capability to formulate a national implementing guideline that envisions a national impact . To cite , Section 6605 states : to provide matching grants to States for programs designed to promote source reduction by businesses ' as to (1 ) make specific technical assistance available to businesses seeking information about source reduction opportunities and funding for experts to assist in the development of source reduction plans (2 ) targeting assistance to businesses for whom lack of information is an impediment to source reduction (3 ) provide training in source reduction techniques through local engineering schools or any other appropriate means (Sec .6605 : PPA90 as amended , PL 107-377 in US Senate , 2002

In addition to envisioning a national impact through US-EPA 's programs Section 6606 of PPA90 defines the installation of source reduction clearinghouse . As cited from the provision , to establish a computerized clearinghouse to be used as a tool for outreach , education and technical information to (1 ) compile and make available information including a computer data base which contains information on management technical , and operational approaches to source reduction and (2 ) make available to the public the pertinent information and analysis regarding source reduction (Sec .6606 : PPA90 as amended , PL 107-377 in US Senate , 2002

It appears that based on the mandate of US-EPA , it realizes and implements the conceptual framework of PPA90 in environmental protection and likewise being empowered by the enactment of Executive 13423 [as previously discussed in this ] , wherein the specific provisions clearly guides US-EPA to institutionalize its programs with an added service-incentives to American industries through technical grants

We can deduced that the enactment of PPA90 has passed through an evolutionary economic setting of which we may perceived that the subsequent amendment to the Clean Air Act from 1955 to 1970 has not fully institutionalize the framework of operation in the policy guidelines . Although it was from the time of President Nixon in the early 70 's that attempted to install a bureaucratic agency where EPA may have been partly patterned , the national impact of the Nixon anti-pollution programs were less in magnitude in aspects of enforcement and institutional implementation . Thus , the 1990 economic setting may have called for a timely and necessary implementation of PPA90 through the US-EPA due to the rapid increase of population and boom of industries indicative to the growing environmental hazards specifically the continuing demand to transportation and expansive production modalities of factories that are primarily contributing to air pollution

To further situate the analysis at an objective national perspective , we may highlight related findings on the aspect of US-EPA performance in implementing its programs . According to the findings of Shulamit Kahn and Christopher R . Knittel of the Center for the Study of Energy Markets (CESM ) in University of California , the Clean Air Act amendments of 1990 (presently known as PPA90 ) have not [in some consideration] affected the electricity industry . As cited from the findings of Kahn and Knittel (2003 ) average electricity firms were not adversely affected by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 , while coal-mining firms were particularly only one of the 35 firms owning Phase 1 electricity generating plants had a statistically significant response to the evolution of the legislation and that this response was positive and fewer than half of 14 firms had negative coefficients while 9 of 11 coal firms had negative responses (Kahn Knittel , 2003

The findings of Kahn and Knittel (2003 ) pointed out on the impact of PPA90 through US-EPA implementation to energy industrial complex . The sampling of the empirical study on positive and negative responses (efficient and coefficient ) found that the bases of both industries (electricity and coal mining ) were on cost of compliance . On the other hand , it was also found that the cost of compliance to the PPA90 could be passed on to the consumers as part of the industry 's adjustments to the added operating cost . Based on the finding , the impact of the PPA90 enactment to energy industry would create a superficial ' reaction regarding cost compliance , where in fact the PPA90 has prevented the occurrence of acid rain by imposing thorough technical compliance procedures from the energy industry , specifically in coal mining and use of coal in electricity production

Moreover , the outcome emphasizes the significance of assessing the result of environmental regulation on the energy sector and its consumers considering that the coal mining industry is a substantial monetary resource and labor-intensive industry partner . In which case , a continuing legislative effort or policy initiatives may complement to reconcile the issue on cost compliance . The findings of Khan and knittel (2003 ) pointed out that the national impact of PPA90 through US-EPA has somehow tweaked the core of energy industries that is now confronted with a critical challenge how to farther stretch the capital budget

A similar study was undertaken by Curtis Moore of the Northeast-Midwest Institute , earlier from Kahn 's and Knittel 's findings . The findings of Moore (2001 ) relate the impact of PPA90 and US-EPA to transport and energy sector . Citing Moore 's finding , he described the Clean Air Act amendment (referring to PPA90 ) encourages sprawl ' because its requisites for polluting facilities ' are more stringent within urban areas than in non-urban areas (Moore , C , 2001 . As further cited , the US-EPA technical requisites can elevate pollutant removal efficiencies wherein new facilities reduce emissions by 1 .5 tons of pollutant from daily ton of pollutant increase that can be translated as an incentive to build new emission sources , development , and transportation projects beyond urban centers , in outlying areas where the air quality still meets federal standards (Moore , C , 2001

The early findings of Moore indicates that the technical procedures and facilities being used by US-EPA can be an efficient tools in maintaining air quality standards from urban and non-urban communities . As a result of the campaign in maintaining air quality standards , Moore found several transport operators and polluting facilities ' transferring to various non-urban states in to avoid the US-EPA geographical expansion . The transference has not however avoided the stringent implementation of US-EPA programs in many states wherein compliance to air quality standards have employed the maintaining percentage of tolerance to pollutants . To cite , Moore describes the Clean Air Act (as amended by PPA90 ) conforms to its provisions that provide an impetus and opportunity to enhance the quality of life by linking clean energy revitalization and strengthening the regional planning (Moore , C 2001

Likewise , Moore 's statistical data in 2001 has accounted the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions reflective of the Clean Air Act amendments from 1971 to 1990 enactment of Pollution Prevention Act , as follows the date standard : Pre-1971 no standard 1971-1977 1 .2 lbs /M /BTU heat input 1977-90 percentage reduction 1990-present percentage reduction equivalency : probably 0 .4 in the West coast , 0 .7 in the East coast . The findings of Moore further discloses the effective performance of US-EPA in implementing its program and enable to streamline and collaborate its operation with the local state governments in US West and East coasts

Another interesting discussion is on the legal aspect of US-EPA 's mandate that has been recognized by the US Federal Court precedent to a case in `FDA v . Brown Williamson Tobacco Corp (529 US , 120 , 2000 in Heinzerling , 2007 . To cite , in 1999 , the International Center for Technology Assessment (ICTA ) and parties petitioned US-EPA to set standards to new motor vehicles emitting 4 kinds of hazardous chemicals namely : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and hydro fluorocarbons The petition affirmed that , due to effects on climate , motor vehicles emitting these chemicals points to the provision on air pollution which may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health or welfare , as provided by Section 202 (a (1 ) of the Clean Air Act as amended in 1990 (Heinzerling , 2007

The above mentioned petition of ICTA and parties (Massachusetts v US-EPA ) was brought about by US-EPA 's discretionary promulgation ' or refusal to set standards on the so-called greenhouse gases ' emission of new motor vehicles . The Supreme Court then reviewed similar cases on and executed , which found `FDA v . Brown Williamson Tobacco Corp as precedent to the case . On the other hand , the derivatives of the Supreme Court to the so-called discretionary promulgation ' were found in Section 202 (a (1 ) of the Clean Air Act as amended in 1990 being commonly known as Pollution Prevention Act of 1990

According to Heinzerling (2007 , the Supreme Court promulgated a vote of 5-4 in favor of Massachusetts and petitioners . The Supreme Court acknowledged the corroboration of PPA90 provisions stating that : (1 the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ' or the agency ) is being authorized to regulate greenhouse gases ' from motor vehicles and (2 that EPA erred in refusing to regulate these emissions based on policy concerns not reflected in the Act ( Section 202 : a-1 in Heinzerling 2007

A brief review of the case in `Massachusetts v . EPA (Case No . 05-1120 in US Supreme Court , 2006 ) tells two perceptive understanding first the impact of the amendment to Clean Air Act that formulated the PPA90 has been sensibly recognized by the public and the legal practitioners This recognition to the PPA90 could be understood that the people are overly conscious and supportive in the enactment (as also indicative to the performance of subsequent amendments from the statistical data of Moore in 2001 , and second is the juridical acceptance of the Supreme Court cognizant to upholding the material ' enforcement of PPA90 as a law and a public policy . Thus , the magnitude of impact in amending the Clean Air Act that enacted the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 and the creation of US-EPA as its implementing body have evolved to national perspectives

Conclusion

It may be concluded that the enactment of Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 has subsisted from its long idyllic state as a public policy . It may have been a long leap of the US government before realizing the imperative situation of amending the Clean Air Act of 1970 , from which the long overdue has resulted the state to recoup their recyclable from billion-dollar consumption

The US being the third largest country and a major consumer of world 's imports may convert its economic discharge or surplus into potential wastes . This potential wastage could sip in to the bottom of the Earth or have the residue disperse to airspace that may be distributed to various parts of the world . Thus , the climate change may be contributed by highly developed countries , as they are engaged in massive industrial diversification of economy that consequentially leaves residual hazards to the environment

We may impart into the conclusion that the US-EPA is the realization of an evolutionary socio-economic setting of the US to control and manage the continuing growth of pollutants as they expand and divest their economy , and the looming effect of population to the environment . It is then we can conclude that the enactment of PPA90 is urgent and strongly needing indispensable action prior to realization of a superpower country sitting on top of its waste in a desolate and dying planet

References

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