Criminology: An overview

Criminology as a field

Theories concerning the motives of crime and suggested solutions to the problem

Possible ways to combat crime

Criminology : basic concepts

Hate crimes

Victimology

Juvenile delinquency

Organized crime

Serial and mass murder

Criminology as a field

Criminology is a theoretical field of study that aims to describe crime establish its etiology or causes , its meaning in terms of law , and community reaction to crime . Criminology was until recently considered to be a branch of its mother discipline , sociology , but has since then

been singled out as a separate science

Criminology can be described as the science of crime rates , individual and group reasons for committing crime , and community or societal reactions to crime . Applied criminologists are concerned with working out typologies of criminals that would allow the creation or crime predictions and elaboration of the criminal behavior patterns . On the other hand , criminological theorists have been trying to connect empirical facts into a theoretical framework that allows one to explain crime

The classic definition of criminology by Edwin Sutherland defines this field as the scientific study of making laws , breaking laws , and reacting toward the breaking of laws ' Areas of criminology are specified accordingly (A Guide

Some criminologists specialize in the study of making laws and have a legal bent working in the field of criminology of criminal law . Those who have sociology degrees research the sociology of law (A Guide

The second area , and perhaps the first one that comes to mind in association with sociology is the area of criminogenesis , etiology or the study of crime causation . This is an interdisciplinary area closely related to anthropology , economics , political science , psychology , or sociology (A Guide

The key aspect of criminology indispensable in crime prediction is the attempt to clarify the nature of crime . For centuries criminologists and other scientists have been trying to resolve the problem of crime prevention through applying various theories aiming to explain crime etiology . Although the small format of this does not allow the author to offer a detailed account of all the theories , I will try to provide a brief overview

Theories concerning the motives of crime and suggested solutions to the problem

Different theories have been developed by criminologists in an attempt to explain the motives benind a criminal 's behavior that will enable prediction and prevention of crimes . The most ancient is the demonology theory that explains criminal behaviour with demonic influence and dates back to 5 ,000 BC . Later scholars tried to attribute the criminal intentions to zodiac or planetary influence as did astrologists or to God 's will as is stated in the theological theory

One of the early theories that survived till present time is the medical approach to criminality that establishes the roots of criminal behavior in the body 's biological properties such as natural illness

Biological perspective focuses on the natural properties that condition the predisposition to criminal activities . Here belong Lombroso 's atavism theory and Sheldon 's somatotype theory that both seek to establish inclination to criminal action based on the morphological properties of the individual . The biochemical-neurological approach relates the criminal actions to the neurotransmitter activity while inheritance-genetic approach equates committing the crime with other actions caused by the genetic background of the person (A Guide

The theoretical foundation for the etiology of crime is crucial in determining the ways of combating crime as a persistent social problem Thus , the modern theorists favoring the biological approach insists on the medical treatment for the offenders that encompasses drugs psychosurgery , plastic surgery , genetic counseling , and eugenics for the untreatables . The factors that lead to crimes are medicalized and relegated to the medical sphere , opening a potential sphere for abuse of the offenders

Other researchers tried to connect the biological theory with the psychiatry and social factors , with Mednick 's biosocial theory and Freudian approach serving as examples

Psychological approach bases its prevention strategies on psychoanalysis , group therapy , counseling , family therapy , drug treatment , and reconditioning . One more way to combat crime is the cognitive therapy that opens up for the former offenders new ways to conceptualize the world around them (A Guide . Currently , the psychological study of crime overlaps to some extent with the field of clinical criminology that focuses on the assessment and management of violent behavior by psychiatric patients and also with risk assessment and management procedures (Clinical criminology

Disorganization-ecological theories have tended to focus on the problems of individuals that suffer from the inability to acculturate themselves to a strange mainstream society , like people moving to large cities from smaller communities or those who belong to national cultures different from the dominant in the given society . In this case , the way out is clearly the efforts aimed at preventing crime by taking steps to assimilate the newcomers in a new environment

Learning theory has concentrated its attention in the influences that can lead one to become a criminal . The method to prevent this from happening is the rehabilitation through reeducation and resocialization This theory , however , although applicable in some cases , does not explain the motives behind offences perpetrated by the individuals with average middle-class background (A Guide

Related is the subculture theory that stipulates that the delinquent subcultures emerged in response to the special problems that the members of mainstream society do not face (Demelo . A subculture is a group with norms different from those of a mainstream society that emerges as a result of individual groups feeling isolated from the dominant group Behavioral patterns in these subgroups are explored in Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti 's Subculture of Violence thesis

Purely social approaches have focused on the way the societal processes affect the decision of the individuals to commit crimes

A vivid example of the social approach is Durkheim 's Anomie theory which he described in his book The Division of Labor in Society , published in 1893 . Anomie in the sense applied by Durkheim is the deregulation process happening in the society , describing the collapse of habitual behavioral norms that resulted in the individuals ' disorientation about the acceptable and the unacceptable conduct . In the evolution of the society from the non-specialized form called mechanical , towards a specialized form labelled organic , social ties are disintegrated and humans are expected to pursue different goals rather than conform to a uniform set of norms and customs (Demelo Keel

Social control theory attributes crime to the effects of the strategies and techniques which help regulate human behavior and thus lead to conformity and compliance of the rules of society , including the influences of family , school , morals , values , beliefs , etc (Demelo Social control theorists investigate the interrelation between rules adopted in the society and the personal decision to abide by these rules or to break them . Those trying to fight the spreading of crime in society through intensifying social control try to instil bonding , thus fostering the desire to spare the relatives and other close people from anguish . Combined with work-retraining schemes , the techniques associated with this theory tend to be the most successful in the crime prevention practice

Labeling approach has taken an unexpected turn trying to establish on the criteria that specify classification into criminal , or deviant , and regular actions . Howard S . Becker in 1963 wrote "Deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits , but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender . The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied deviant behavior is behaviour that people so label (Demelo . Thus , labelling theories rebuff the idea that criminals are wrong-doers , positing instead that individuals are turned into criminals by the social reaction to their behavior . Thus , a criminal can be returned to the law-abiding way of life in case this individual sees reduced moral indignation in others that will help to suppress social shaming reaction (A Guide

Cornish and Clarke in their book Reasoning criminal ' are trying to work out the model of the decision-making process that goes on before the criminal actually makes his /her decision (Cornish , Clarke

This is a multi-factor model that takes into account various issues such as background factors (psychological characteristics social factors like family background , and demographic factors . The motive named is the as need for money or status . Also included are previous learning and experience that connect the experience the offender might have had with respect to his own criminal activities or those by the others . The notion of blocked opportunities refers to the ways of legitimate solutions to the problem the criminal is trying to remove through criminal actions . Also , the amount of time and effort that go into the preparation and elaboration of the crime will factor into the criminal 's actions . All these factors taken together condition the readiness to commit a crime

Possible ways to combat crime

Personally , I consider that most theories and prevention practices they advocate have some merit . I do not trust the idea that relates criminalilty to the biological , thus genetically-related factors . I would propose instead to lay emphasis on the social factors that entail the spread of crime in society . This means that the most optimal solution is the work aimed at the social rehabilitation of the offenders who have already perpetrated felony or minor offences . They need to be provided with psychotherapy in some cases and almost every time with some sort of psychological training to help them cope with the shock of their crime behavior surfacing and getting known in the society they live in . The criminal practices adopted in the subgroups that tend to be lenient to or even promote criminal behavior need to be fought through engaging its members in other meaningful activities that will supply opportunities that were previously viewed as blocked : obtaining money through making a career rather than murder or burglary

The most common solution our society accepts as a default one to apply to the problem of criminality , namely imprisonment , is not admittedly the most effective one . The term in prison leaves a person labelled as a criminal for a lifetime . Instead of guarding the person who has already demonstrated criminal behavior , the detention system often adds opportunities to learn the criminal mentality and code of norms accepted in criminal subgroups . Although most would agree with the above-mentioned contra arguments , prison sentences remain the principal action society takes against criminal behavior

I believe a large part of the crimes are caused by lack of empathy and understanding of the victim 's feelings and sufferings on the part of the criminal whose mind is set on his seemingly insurmountable problems . In this respect , the criminal could be persuaded to abstain from criminal behavior in future if he or she is led to a better understanding of the sufferings of the victim . This could be accomplished through personal communication or through acquainting the criminal with typical cases of the fates of individuals against whom similar crimes have been committed

Aside from these general actions to take to reduce the number of instances of criminal behaviour , there are steps to be taken against various types of such behaviour in particular

Criminology : basic concepts

Like any science , criminology employs a variety of concepts , among which the basic are hate crimes , victimology , juvenile delinquency , mass and serial murder , and organized crime . I will try to analyze them here as well as provide solution for them

Hate crimes

Hate crimes are the criminal actions taken against individuals or groups or property based on the real or perceived race , religion , gender sexual orientation , disability , national origin , or ethnicity of the victims (Partners against hate . The key distinction of this category of criminal activities is the underlying motive , as the offender is provoked by the personal characteristics of the victim

Hate crimes are a grave problem in any place where prejudice and ignorance are present . It is important to promote the understanding of differences among various people and their backgrounds , as these differences may sparkle hatred that later translates into violence

Hate-motivated violence accounts for 4 ,300 incidents of criminal activity reported by the FBI in 2000 . Out of those , 2 ,800 were directed at African-Americans . This evidence leads one to believe that race differences are the most common factor that gives rise to crimes . The majority of such crimes are perpetrated by previously law abiding young people who have a certain form of disdain or hatred for a member of a particular group

Hate crimes are caused by the intention to send a message not only to the targeted victim , but also to the entire community . The offender purports to convey his or her political or social beliefs through violent actions . Therefore , the damage inflicted on the local communities cannot be restricted to physical injury . Communities are endangered in the sense that the very essence of their social welfare and peace is jeopardized , and thus takes time to recover . The contradictions that remained hidden before the crimes are likely to surface provoking exacerbation of conflicts within communities . Hate crimes swiftly destroy public confidence in the safety of the environment in the sense that a common person with distinct racial national or other characteristics cannot be kept free from these crimes (Partners against hate

Among the ways proposed to combat the spread of hate crimes , perhaps the most viable and efficient is to help young people learn to respect and celebrate diversity . Experts recommend that adults start teaching their children between the ages of 5 and 8 as they start to place value judgments on similarities and differences among people (Partners against hate . No less important are the efforts undertaken by the educators and school administrators to do away with racial and other stereotypes that can instil prejudiced beliefs in the young children

I would suggest in the first place efforts aimed at the removal of the barriers installed between people of different ethnic , religious and social groups . This might include the introduction of more classes on diversity in various educational establishments . For those who have already committed those crimes , I would suggest group therapy such as supervised communication with representatives of the groups against which the crime were committed so as to establish social bonds between nthe criminal and the ones he or she used to hate

Victimology

Victimology is loosely interpreted as the study of victims ' and encompasses an evaluation of every facet of their lifestyle , background health , and physical characteristics (Petherick . The idea behind the study of the victims is that the thorough knowledge of the victim will help the psychologist to achieve a better understanding of the criminal .Victimology is firmly established in the overall investigative process as by focusing on the background of the victims , their health and personal history , social habits and personality , researchers are trying to clarify the exact reasons that prompted the perpetrator to pick the victim . Scientific investigation has proved that the offender is likely in many cases to abstain from his crime and wait until he or she has a chance to meet the right ' victim , the one that suits the criminal 's idea of a desired victim . That is exactly the reason why victimology can provide an insight into the way the perpetrator thinks and help investigators to predict the criminal 's future actions and possibly even prevent criminal activities . There are chances that the exact definition of the motives might improve the chances for a successful arrest (Petherick

Victimology is closely interrelated with such concepts as method of approach , method of attack and risk assessment

Knowledge of the details of the victims ' personalities and conduct thorough analysis of the crime scene , we may be able to better determine the way they came into contact with the offender , which means their method of approach

Method of attack explains how the victims were attacked and overpowered Sometimes this analysis will be inseparable from the analysis of the crime scene , the researcher needs to establish the victims ' overall risk , that is the likelihood of becoming a victim for each specific individual . Also helpful is the analysis of the risks the perpetrator undertook in to commit the crime (Petherick

All these assessments taken together will help one to determine what personal characteristics of he victim have led a criminal to pick a certain individual and the likelihood of more crimes being committees against the same person

Juvenile delinquency

Juvenile delinquency merits close investigation as it is a grave and expanding problem in many countries

First of all , it is important to distinguish between crime and delinquency . Crime is regarded as an act that breaks criminal code which is created by society though written law , and delinquency and deviance can be acts that merely break 'cultural law ' or norms . Delinquency is usually specific and descriptive of age (Causal Theories

Massive research has been conducted on the causes of juvenile delinquency . Diverse nature of crime accounts foe the many variants of explanations possible for this phenomenon . Scientists generally agree that each theory is applicable in at least a few cases and few of them are applicable in all instances

Some regard juvenile delinquency as an individual phenomenon , while others will present it as a macro level function of society engaging in the study of the social causes of this notion

Definitions of delinquency also vary . Calhoun and others claim "Sociologists define deviance as any behavior that members of a social group define as violating their norms . This concept applies both to criminal acts of deviance and non-criminal acts that members of a group view as unethical , immoral , peculiar , sick , or otherwise outside the bounds of respectability (Causal Theories

Tomovic cites Breckenridge 's definition of delinquency as "a condition arising in the matrix of sociopersonal disorganization and in the sequence of experience and influences that shape behavior problems . It is the product of dynamic social process , involving numerous variables and the failure of personal and social controls . It is a symptom of deep socioeconomic and social ailments (Causal Theories

Theorists have exhibited interest in societal factors generating juvenile delinquency as they are trying to mull the research that will assist in working out a theory effective in preventing this kind of criminal activity . Investigation often focuses on demographics and the relationships that help to explain juvenile delinquency

The theories that attempt to explain or predict delinquency mention and examine many different or units within society that are applicable within the theories . Families , peers , schools , and socioeconomic status are all social factors that are examined in many of the causal theories .A crucial factor that helps one to understand the roots of this phenomenon is the family unit that determines very early perceptions of the child . Another important influence in later years is the peer environment , as well as the school experiences . All these aspects conditioning youth crime are examined by the criminologists working on this problem (Youth violence

Scholars are interested in delinquent patterns of behavior that are provoked by parents and educators when they label the child as delinquent . Demographic factors such as bad living conditions and a crime-prone neighborhood can contribute to one 's inclination to perpetrate crime

Naturally , research on juvenile delinquency also concentrates on the personal choice one has to make as a final step to the crime itself irrespective of external influences

I would propose , first of all , the reform of the school system that would aim at the removal of the barriers conditioned by the stratification of the communities on the basis of their well-being Then , for the juvenile delinquents already found guilty of criminal activity , I would envisage the introduction of government-sponsored programs aimed at their accommodation in the society in the professional and personal areas , such as special employment and educational programs that would enable these youths to get a handicap accessing the job stability and educational opportunities , as well as various social activities to help them diversify their spare time and increase the number of their acquaintances outside criminal neighbourhoods

Organized crime

Organized crime is defined as HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Crime " \o "Crime " crime carried out systematically by formal criminal HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Organization " \o "Organization organizations . According to the HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Organized_Crime_Control_Act " \o "Organized Crime Control Act " Organized Crime Control Act ( HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /United_States " \o "United States " US - HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /1970 " \o "1970 " 1970 this concept embraces the unlawful activities of .a highly organized disciplined association (Organized crime : definition

Criminologists engage in the study of various HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Criminal_Organizations " \o "Criminal Organizations " criminal organizations that are subdivided in several categories . Some of them are driven by purely economic motives like local gangs . HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Mafia " \o "Mafia " Mafias are also criminal organizations that for the most part pursue the goal of profit-making . On the other hand , HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Terrorism " \o "Terrorism " terrorist organizations are HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Politics " \o "Politics " politically HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Motivation " \o "Motivation motivated

Criminal activities of a particular group can be interwoven with legitimate operations , the most common of which are licensed HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Gambling " \o "Gambling " gambling building construction , trash hauling or dockloading . These operation supply a cover-up shield for the illicit actions such as HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Drug_trafficking " \o "Drug trafficking " drug trafficking , HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Money_laundering " \o "Money laundering " money laundering , HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Prostitution " \o "Prostitution prostitution , HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Extortion \o "Extortion " extortion and HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Insider_trading " \o "Insider trading insider trading

Criminologists will often focus their studies on the interconnection between criminal organizations and the existing legitimate administration structures . These links that result in corruption of the public officials are indispensable for the well-being of the criminal structures as they need support from the outside world . Officials employed in the HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Judiciary \o "Judiciary " judiciary , HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Police " \o "Police " police forces and HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Legislature " \o "Legislature " legislature are especially sought after by organized crime members who solicit their assistance through bribes , threats , or a combination of both

Criminal bodies derive certain benefits from social distrust of the government or the HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Police \o "Police " police bodies . They would often act as replacements for the police in the societies where the official structures do not function due to lack of confidence on the part of the citizens

The difference between criminal organizations and official establishments is that , as criminals are not accountable to others and can afford to have a smaller amount of work , they can reorganize more quickly and thus exhibit sufficient flexibility

Criminologists interested in organized crime devote their attention to the effects of HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Globalization " \o "Globalization globalization that impacts crime as much business . Criminal organizations , like trans-national corporations , are quick to cross bs between countries . One area of criminal activity where this phenomenon has been especially vivid is HYPERLINK "http /www .wordiq .com /definition /Human_trafficking " \o "Human trafficking " human trafficking (Organized crime :definition

Organized crime that takes on increasingly international look can only be fought via joint efforts of different nations . The police departments targeting organized crime need to enjoy maximum independence from various government bodies that all too often employ officials who take part in criminal actions themselves . I trust that severe action needs to be taken against any instances of organized crime targeting the breakdown of criminal organizations . On the other hand , organized crime can only be removed if talented individuals in every sphere do not suffer from blocked opportunities ' and have a feeling they can succeed without resorting to criminal actions . That is why , in my opinion , government should devote attention to the professional development of youth in depressed neighborhoods and disadvantaged social groups

Serial and mass murder

Serial killers are individuals who have a history of multiple slayings of individuals usually unknown to them beforehand (Criminal Justice Resources . This kind of crime that seemed to increase in frequency in the second half of the twentieth century can be traced back as far as 1888 when Jack the Ripper intimidated the inhabitants of London

Mass murder ' and serial murder ' are often used interchangeably while in fact there is a difference between the two . Criminologists usually single out the following differences . A serial killer perpetrates a number of murders that are stretched over long time period . The rest of the time , the criminal is acting as a normal member of the society . In contrast , a mass murderer kills several people in a single event

The Bureau of Justice Statistics defines a serial killing as "[involving] the killing of several victims in three or more separate events (Criminal Justice Resources . This definition can be linked to that of a spree killer who tends to hunt for his victims and kills in several disparate events

Serial killers often to some degree lack in socialization and can be described as sociopaths . Many of them are inspired by sadistic motives and are devoid of the ability to empathize with other people

In legal proceedings , it is common that a serial killer tries to avoid punishment by pleading not guilty by reason of insanity . However , this line of defense often proves unsuccessful in most countries

Mass murderers are those who kill several victims at one time and in one place , with the number of victims typically no less than three . On the other hand , the spree murderer kills several victims but not all in one place

Mass murder has existed for a long periods of time and has been more prevalent in historically and in more societies than serial murder Still , it is relatively little investigated . Serial murderers usually end up in prison , go through some legal proceedings , interrogations and the like before that , which allows to obtain some sort of insight into their psychologies . In comparison , the mass murderer typically ends his crime with a suicide or is often killed by the police . Thus , scientists evaluating mass murder are often reduced to performing "psychological autopsies " or have to rely on mere speculations

Serial and mass murders also provoke different community reactions Serial murders usually leave the community in a lasting state of shock while mass murder provides a short-lived reaction that is quick to dissipate

In mass murder , there are , as a rule , no elements of victim selection , a feature that distinguishes mass murder from genocide . Victim selection tends to be arbitrary and can hardly be predicted

Close to mass murder is the phenomenon of workplace violence , where the offender is a dissatisfied employee

Criminologists have been trying to establish a classification of offender likely to engage in mass murder . Motivation typologies have singled out such types as disciples , annihilators , disgruntled employees , pseudocommandos ' and set and run killers (Criminal Justice

Disciples follow commands of a charismatic leader and fall under his spell . This category involves Gang initiation and cult loyalty killings Annihilators are those who exhibit outbreaks of violence , very often against household members . Their motives are least clear . Disgruntled employees are trying to retaliate for certain unfairness they experienced in their working surrounding . Pseudocommandos attack as a result of careful planning and their assault serves as a way to bring to the surface the indignation against some grave injustice experienced in life . Set and run killers plan to inflict injury on other people such as bomb explosion and then flee from the crime scene to save their lives

The task of the criminologists is to focus on the ways of prevention of mass murder . Study of motivation typologies can only partially solve this problem as there is continuing dispute as to what can count as proper warning signs such as the presence of a gun on a person Prevention will include the elaboration of appropriate police tactics

There 's not much that can be done to protect society completely from mass murder . Many of the motivations are unclear , and there 's tremendous controversy over what constitutes the proper "warning signs . Prevention as well as police response tactics are areas and issues that deserve greater consideration

Mass murder is all the more dangerous due to its scale . Invariably there is a potential danger that a randomly acting criminal will injure the innocent bystanders who were not initially targeted as victims (Mass murder

Mass murder as well as serial murder is especially hard to prevent as these crimes are hard to predict and the person who commits them very often appears to be a normal society member until the actual moment of the crime . I would say society as a whole and businesses on the micro-level need to devote greater attention to the psychological well-being of society members , offering counseling and psychotherapy to those who are undergoing through traumatic experiences . In case of the criminals who have committed such crimes , my belief is that strategies should be differentiated with respect to the nature of the crime and psychological health of the offender . While some of the criminals can be rehabilitated in to resume their normal lives , others need to get medical treatment for a considerable time period , even for a lifetime (Mass murder

In general , every individual case of criminal activity requires a customized solution although the establishment of general guidelines to fight against this problem would be helpful for the professionals in this area . I believe that theoretically well-grounded methods of crime prevention coupled with proficiency of the practitioners in this sphere would ensure great advances in the safety of the citizens

Works cited

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CRIMINOLOGY ...